https://hemerotecadigital.uanl.mx/files/original/407/20958/Biologia_y_Sociedad._2023_Vol._6_No_12_Segundo_semestre.pdf 39b6b4231f944d6e277b2b8287d9061d PDF Text Text ISSN 2992-6939 Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 �Una publicación de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Dr. Santos Guzmán López Rector Dr. Juan Paura García Secretario General Dr. Jaime Arturo Castillo Elizondo Secretario Académico Dr. José Javier Villarreal Tostado Secretario de Extensión y Cultura Lic. Antonio Ramos Revillas Director de Publicaciones Dr. José Ignacio González Rojas Director de la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Cuerpo Editorial de Biología y Sociedad Dr. Jesús Ángel de León González Editor en Jefe Dra. María Elena García-Garza Editor Técnico Editores adjuntos: Dr. Juan Gabriel Báez-González Alimentos Dr. Sergio I. Salazar-Vallejo Dra. Evelyn Patricia Ríos-Mendoza Biología Contemporánea Dr. Sergio Arturo Galindo-Rodríguez Dra. Ana Laura Lara-Rivera Biotecnología Dr. José Ignacio González-Rojas Dr. Eduardo Alfonso Rebollar-Téllez Dr. Erick Cristóbal Oñate González Ecología y Sustentabilidad Dr. Reyes S. Tamez-Guerra Dr. Jorge Enrique Castro Garza Dr. Iram P. Rodríguez-Sánchez Salud Jorge Ortega Villegas Diseñador Gráfico M. C. Alejandro Peña Rivera Desarrollo y Diseño Gráfico, Web Ing. Jorge Alberto Ibarra Rodríguez Página web BIOLOGÍA Y SOCIEDAD, año 6, No. 12, segundo semestre de 2023, es una publicación semestral editada por el Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, a través de la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas. Av. Universidad s/n, Cd. Universitaria San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, www.uanl.mx, biologiaysociedad@uanl.mx, Editor responsable: Dr. Jesús Angel de León González. Número de Reserva de Derechos al Uso Exclusivo No. 04-2017-060914413700-203; ISSN 29926939. Ambos otorgados por el Instituto Nacional de Derecho de Autor. Las opiniones y contenidos expresados en los artículos son responsabilidad exclusiva de los autores y no necesariamentere flejan la postura del editor de la publicación. Queda prohibida la reproducción total o parcial, en cualquier forma o medio, del contenido de la publicación sin previa autorización. CONTENIDO Zonificación Análoga de Rusticidad a las USDA Plant Hardiness Zones para Nuevo León (México) en el periodo 1981-2040, y su Importancia en la Reforestación Urbana Nativa 4 Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions 14 Los metabolitos secundarios como agentes antimicrobianos. 33 Los chinicuiles o gusanos rojos del maguey: alimento de origen prehispánico amenazado por su sobreexplotación. The Amphibians And Reptiles Of The Northern Selva Lacandona: Nahá And Metzabok, Ocosingo, Chiapas, México; With Some Ethnoherpetological Notes In Memoriam 41 48 80 �EDITORIAL E stimados lectores de este undécimo segundo número de Biología y Sociedad, nos es muy grato poner en sus manos un conjunto de 6 contribuciones que son el resultado, en primer lugar, la generosidad de los autores de cada una de las mismas quienes las sometieron a publicación. Así mismo, la versión final publicada de este número es resultado del esfuerzo y trabajo, de todos los integrantes del Comité Editorial, así como de todas aquellas personas que fungieron como árbitros anónimos, a quienes Biología y Sociedad les agradece. En este decimosegundo número Biología y Sociedad, a través de su sección IN MEMORIAM, rinde un muy sentido homenaje a una integrante de la comunidad científica mexicana, la Dra. Nury Méndez Ubach, una muy destacada investigadora en el área del desarrollo de diversas especies de anélidos poliquetos, quien muy lamentablemente se nos adelantó en el camino. Biología y Sociedad agradece la generosidad y sensibilidad de quienes escribieron el documento. La publicación de este Decimosegundo número de Biología y Sociedad constata la ineludible responsabilidad de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León de contribuir, de manera sostenida, a promover la apropiación social del conocimiento y de aportar a edificar una sociedad cada vez más informada, y por lo tanto más equitativa y justa. �Dr.    Jesús Angel de León-González Editor en Jefe �ZONIFICACIÓN ANÁLOGA DE RUSTICIDAD A LAS USDA PLANT HARDINESS ZONES PARA NUEVO LEÓN (MÉXICO) EN EL PERIODO 1981-2040, Y SU IMPORTANCIA EN LA REFORESTACIÓN URBANA NATIVA �Adrián    González-Martínez, Pedro Adrián Ibarra-Elizondo 4 �Palabras clave: Zonas de Rusticidad, USDA, Nuevo León, Paisajismo, Viverismo, Arbolado Urbano, Horticultura Key Words: Plant Hardiness Zones, USDA, Nuevo León, Landscaping, Nurseries, Urban Trees, Horticulture Resumen Las zonas de rusticidad de plantas (plant hardiness zones) son áreas geográficas que se definen por condiciones climáticas o biológicas significativas para el crecimiento de las especies vegetales. En muchos países, estas zonas se utilizan para ayudar a mejorar la eficacia de proyectos de paisajismo y en la industria agrícola. El Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA) ha definido 14 zonas de rusticidad basadas en las temperaturas mínimas promedio durante varios años o décadas, con una diferencia de 10 °F (5.6 °C) entre cada zona. Este estudio busca crear una zonificación análoga para Nuevo León, México, utilizando capas bioclimáticas de CHELSA Bioclim y los mismos rangos de temperaturas que la USDA. El objetivo es ayudar en la elección de especies de árboles urbanos que sean apropiadas para las condiciones climáticas de la zona, y evitar pérdidas masivas en caso de eventos extremadamente fríos. Se genera cartografía para México y los Estados Unidos contiguos, Nuevo León y la Zona Metropolitana de Monterrey, así como un listado de especies nativas adecuadas para proyectos de reforestación urbana. Abstract Plant hardiness zones are geographic areas defined by significant climatic or biological conditions for the growth of plant species. In many countries, these zones are used to help improve the effectiveness of landscaping projects and in the agricultural industry. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has defined 14 hardiness zones based on average minimum temperatures over several years or decades, with a difference of 10 °F (5.6 °C) between each zone. This study aims to create an analogous zoning for Nuevo León, Mexico, using bioclimatic layers from CHELSA Bioclim and the same temperature ranges as the USDA. The goal is to help in the selection of urban tree species that are suitable for the climatic conditions of the area, and to avoid massive losses in case of extremely cold events. Cartography is generated for Mexico and contiguous United States, Nuevo León, and the Metropolitan Area of Monterrey, as well as a list of native species suitable for urban reforestation projects. 5 �Figura 1: Zonas de Rusticidad del USDA para el periodo 1976-2005, actualizado en 2012 (PRISM Climate Group, 2023). Introducción L as zonas de rusticidad de plantas (plant hardiness zones) son un mecanismo de delimitación geográfica de áreas que cuentan con una característica en particular que permite o limita el crecimiento de plantas, y son de particular importancia para la industria del viverismo y agricultura. Desde 1960, el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA) ha publicado mapas asignando regiones de los Estados Unidos de América a una de las 14 zonas de rusticidad, delimitadas por diferencias en el promedio de temperaturas mínimas anuales de 10 °F (5.6° C) entre ellas (Figura 1, Tabla 1). Estas zonificaciones se actualizan cada cierto tiempo para reflejar cambios en los promedios de temperaturas mínimas y considerando eventos de temperaturas mínimas extremas. Para 1990, estas zonas se dividieron en dos subzonas, llamadas “a” y “b” para los cinco grados Fahrenheit inferiores y superiores del rango, respectivamente, en cada zona (Del Tredici, 1990; Patton, 2018). 6 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Zona Subzona 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Temperatura Mínima a < -65 °F < -53.9 °C -65 °F -53.9 °C b -65 °F -53.9 °C -60 °F -51.1 °C a -60 °F -51.1 °C -55 °F -48.3 °C b -55 °F -48.3 °C -50 °F -45.6 °C a -50 °F -45.6 °C -45 °F -42.8 °C b -45 °F -42.8 °C -40 °F -40 °C a -40 °F -40 °C -35 °F -37.2 °C b -35 °F -37.2 °C -30 °F -34.4 °C a -30 °F -34.4 °C -25 °F -31.7 °C b -25 °F -31.7 °C -20 °F -28.9 °C a -20 °F -28.9 °C -15 °F -26.1 °C b -15 °F -26.1 °C -10 °F -23.3 °C a -10 °F -23.3 °C -5 °F -20.6 °C b -5 °F -20.6 °C 0 °F -17.8 °C a 0 °F -17.8 °C 5 °F -15 °C b 5 °F -15 °C 10 °F -12.2 °C a 10 °F -12.2 °C 15 °F -9.4 °C b 15 °F -9.4 °C 20 °F -6.7 °C a 20 °F -6.7 °C 25 °F -3.9 °C b 25 °F -3.9 °C 30 °F -1.1 °C a 30 °F -1.1 °C 35 °F 1.7 °C b 35 °F 1.7 °C 40 °F 4.4 °C a 40 °F 4.4 °C 45 °F 7.2 °C b 45 °F 7.2 °C 50 °F 10 °C a 50 °F 10 °C 55 °F 12.8 °C b 55 °F 12.8 °C 60 °F 15.6 °C a 60 °F 15.6 °C 65 °F 18.3 °C b 65 °F 18.3 °C > 65 °F > 18.3 °C Numerosos sistemas de zonas de rusticidad similares han sido producidos en diversas partes del mundo. El sistema de Australia, por ejemplo, crea siete zonas delimitadas por diferencias en 5 °C entre sí, desde -15 °C a -10 °C en la zona 1, hasta 15 °C a 20 °C en la zona 7 (Dawson, 1991). La Real Sociedad de Horticultura del Reino Unido cuenta con una clasificación de siete zonas (RHS1 a RHS7), con un rango de 5 °C entre cada una a partir de RHS2. La zona RHS1 está dividida en tres subzonas, “c”, “b” y “a”, con diferencias de 5 °C entre ellas, y que corresponden a las temperaturas más altas (5 °C a 10 °C, 10 °C a 15 °C y más de 15 °C, respectivamente). La zona RHS7 indica temperaturas menores a -20 °C (RHS, 2012). Para México, Giddings y Soto-Esparza (2005) crearon un sistema de zonas de calor, dividiendo al país al tomar en cuenta la cantidad de días promedio al año con temperaturas máximas mayores a 30 °C, similar al producido por la American Society for Horticultural Science. Mencionan que las zonas con mayor cantidad de días por encima de los 30 °C no siempre coinciden con las partes del país donde se presentan las temperaturas máximas extremas, superiores a 45 °C. El Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 Temperatura Máxima mapa de zonas de rusticidad del USDA, en su versión de 1990, incluyó por primera vez a México y Canadá, aunque estos países han sido retirados en versiones más recientes. Este sistema ha recibido críticas y comentarios a lo largo de los años. Dawson (1991), al crear el sistema australiano, consideró que las categorías de la USDA hacían ver al territorio estadounidense mucho más frío de lo que en realidad es, por sus temperaturas promedio. Patton (2018), por su parte, comenta que este sistema es sólo una parte del panorama, ya que no toma en cuenta otras condiciones importantes para el desarrollo apropiado de las plantas, como la temperatura máxima extrema y promedio del verano, precipitación y sequía, humedad relativa, tipos de suelo, entre otros. El mapa de zonas de rusticidad es más útil para delimitar los rangos viables de especies perennes como árboles y arbustos que para herbáceas (University of Maine, 2022), por lo que este sistema debe utilizarse como una guía y no como una norma, ya que se deben considerar muchos otros factores al momento de elegir plantas ornamentales y de producción agrícola para así garantizar el éxito de éstas. 7 Zonificación Análoga de Rusticidad a las USDA Plant Hardiness Zones para Nuevo León (México) en el periodo 1981-2040, y su Importancia en la Reforestación Urbana Nativa Tabla 1: Zonas de Rusticidad de acuerdo con el USDA (2012). �Importancia de la Reforestación Urbana con Especies Nativas Los esfuerzos de reforestación urbana han mostrado numerosos beneficios para la mejora de las condiciones de vida de las poblaciones, además de fungir como mitigadores de diversos efectos del cambio climático. Las áreas verdes y el arbolado en calles tienen un impacto en la disminución de temperaturas atmosféricas y de las superficies como pavimentos y asfaltos (Aram et al., 2019; Yan et al., 2018). Asimismo, proveen beneficios psicológicos, como un mayor confort térmico (que propicia el descanso en las noches y el esparcimiento) y el aumento en la atractividad de las calles (Klemm et al., 2015; Lobaccaro y Acero, 2015). Hay una clara tendencia de comportamiento peatonal al preferir zonas con buen confort térmico, como la sombra en las banquetas, para caminar, sentarse a descansar o convivir, o detenerse a esperar el transporte público (Kim y Brown, 2022). Lo más recomendable es utilizar especies de árboles, arbustos y herbáceas que sean nativas a la región donde se planea la reforestación, ya que estas especies tienen mayores posibilidades de adaptarse a los cambios ambientales a largo plazo, así como manejar los efectos de condiciones climáticas adversas (Alanís-Flores, 2011; Jang y Leung, 2022), ya que son adecuadas para las condiciones específicas de suelos, temperaturas, regímenes de lluvia, y para las interacciones con otros organismos, ya sea como alimento y refugio para polinizadores, aves y mamíferos, o por su mayor resistencia a patógenos y plagas. Los árboles urbanos nativos, además, muestran mejores tasas de acumulación de carbono que sus contrapartes silvestres (Schwendenmann y Mitchell, 2014). Sin embargo, una alta diversidad de especies de árboles urbanos es necesaria para incrementar y mejorar los servicios ecosistémicos (Morgenroth et al., 2016), por lo que es viable utilizar algunas especies exóticas seleccionadas para este propósito, siempre y cuando no afecten las condiciones ambientales a su alrededor, como evitando el crecimiento de especies nativas, o convirtiéndose en exóticas invasivas (Wood y Esaian, 2020). Metodología Los datos climatológicos se obtuvieron de la plataforma CHELSA Climate (Climatologies at High resolution for the Earth’s Land Surface Areas) de Karger et al. (2017, 2018) en los parámetros bioclimáticos utilizados en otras plataformas como WorldClim y ANUCLIM, los cuales son derivados de variables como la temperatura máxima, media y mínima mensuales, y precipitación media mensual con el fin de generar datos biológicamente significativos. A partir de estas variables es posible calcular parámetros anuales como temperatura y precipitación medias, por cuartiles en el caso de las temperaturas y precipitaciones medias en los cuartiles más cálidos, más fríos, más húmedos y más secos, además de las temperaturas máximas y mínimas en los meses más cálidos y fríos, respectivamente, y la precipitación en los meses más húmedos y más secos, además de otros parámetros derivados como 8 el rango diurno diario de temperatura, las isotermas, el rango anual de temperatura, y la estacionalidad de las temperaturas y precipitaciones (WorldClim, 2022; CHELSA Climate, 2022). Las capas en esta plataforma están disponibles en diversos rangos de tiempo desde 1981-2010, 2011-2040, 2041-2070 y 2071-2100. Son generadas a partir de diversos modelos de sistema terrestre en tres trayectorias de concentración representativa (RCP) distintas: SSP1-RCP2.6, SSP3-RCP7 y SSP5-RCP8.5 a partir de la CMIP6, los cuales son escenarios futuros de concentración de gases de efecto invernadero en la atmósfera de acuerdo con distintas expectativas de cumplimiento de políticas ambientales y generación de contaminantes hacia finales del siglo XXI. Las trayectorias socioeconómicas compartidas (SSP), además, consideran factores económicos, sociales y demográficos (Dong et al., 2015). La RCP2.6 implicaría la disminución en gran medida de las emisiones contaminantes, mientras que RCP8.5 representa una muy alta emisión, y a veces es denominada como el “peor escenario”. El parámetro utilizado para el cálculo de las zonas de rusticidad fue la denominada Bio6, la temperatura del aire mínima diaria del mes más frío, o bien, la temperatura más baja entre las temperaturas mínimas diarias mensuales, para el rango temporal de 2011 a 2040, a partir del modelo de sistema terrestre MPIESM1.2 del Instituto Max Planck, elegido por su buena resolución en datos oceánicos y atmosféricos (Gutjahr et al., 2019) bajo la trayectoria SSP3-RCP7, que se puede considerar de emisiones intermedias. Los análisis climatológicos geoespaciales y la cartografía se realizaron en el paquete ArcMap 10.8. El rango de temperaturas mínimas de las capas muestra los datos promedio de temperaturas mínimas del mes más frio para el periodo 2011-2040, pero difieren de las temperaturas mínimas extremas que se busca representar, por lo que se realizó una corrección considerando los valores conocidos y aproximados de temperaturas mínimas extremas en diversos puntos de Norteamérica (particularmente en Monterrey y Galeana, Nuevo León; Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua; Tijuana, Baja California; y Benito Juárez, Quintana Roo) mediante la calculadora ráster con la fórmula: (CHELSA_bio6_2011-2040_mpi-esm1-2-hr_ssp370_V.2.1)-15 °C Para comparar con el mapa oficial de las zonas de rusticidad del USDA (Figura 1) y con la zonificación análoga para el periodo 2011-2040, se produjo un mapa para el periodo 1981-2010 utilizando la metodología descrita con anterioridad con el producto ráster Bio6 de CHELSA 1981-2010 v.2 (CHELSA Climate, 2022). La zonificación de rusticidad producida en este trabajo utiliza los mismos intervalos de temperatura que las Zonas de Rusticidad de Plantas de la USDA, lo que permite aprovechar la información y recursos disponibles en los Estados Unidos de América. Aunque esta zonificación no se calcula a partir de los mismos datos climáticos y meteorológicos que los utilizados por la USDA, se considera análoga debido a su similitud. Por lo tanto, aunque no es un equivalente directo al producido por la USDA, este estudio Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Resultados La zonificación análoga de rusticidad (ZAR) para México y los Estados Unidos de América para el periodo 1981-2010 se muestra en la Figura 2, y para el periodo 2011-2040 en la Figura 3. Los resultados muestran desde las zonas de rusticidad 3a y 3b en diversos picos de la Cordillera de las Rocallosas, las Cascadas, la Sierra Nevada y volcanes en la costa oeste de los Estados Unidos, hasta zonas 11a y 11b en el extremo sur y las costas del Caribe en México. Debido a la resolución espacial de la capa utilizada, es posible ubicar también las zonas más altas de las Sierras Madre Oriental, Occidental, del Sur, de Chiapas, la Sierra de Juárez y San Pedro Mártir, de la Faja Volcánica Transmexicana y de las Apalaches. Las temperaturas más frías en áreas no montañosas en México se presentan en los estados de Chihuahua y Durango, correspondientes a la zona 7b (de -15 °C a -12.2 °C), mientras que los picos más altos en las cordilleras mexicanas entran en la zona 6 (de -23.3 °C a -17.8 °C). Las diferencias entre estas zonificaciones son pocas, aunque se puede observar un aumento en el área de las zonas 10 y 11, correspondiendo al aumento de temperaturas por el cambio climático. El estado de Nuevo León está dividido en cuatro amplias zonas correspondientes a diversas variables biológicas, climatológicas y fisiográficas (Figura 4). El extremo oriental del estado, afín a la Planicie Costera del Golfo, es indicada por la zona 9b. La parte norte-central, afín a las Grandes Llanuras de Norteamérica y partes bajas del Desierto Chihuahuense, corresponde a la zona 9a. El Altiplano Mexicano se muestra en la zona 8b. La Sierra Madre Oriental, por su parte, pertenece a las zonas 8a, 7b, 7a y 6b (Tabla 2). Figura 2: Zonas Análogas de Rusticidad (ZAR) para México y los Estados Unidos de América (1981-2010). Figura 3: Zonas Análogas de Rusticidad (ZAR) para México y los Estados Unidos de América (2011-2040). Tabla 2: Zonas de Rusticidad presentes en el estado de Nuevo León, y las regiones del estado donde se encuentran. Zona de Rusticidad Temperatura Mínima Temperatura Máxima 6b -20.6 °C -17.8 °C -15 °C 7a -17.8 °C 7b -15 °C -12.2 °C Regiones Sierra Madre Oriental 8a -12.2 °C -9.4 °C 8b -9.4 °C -6.7 °C Altiplano Mexicano 9a -6.7 °C -3.9 °C Grandes Llanuras de Norteamérica; Desierto Chihuahuense 9b -3.9 °C -1.1 °C Planicie Costera del Golfo Figura 4: Zonas Análogas de Rusticidad (ZAR) para el estado de Nuevo León y regiones adyacentes (2011-2040). En el recuadro superior derecho, la Zona Metropolitana de Monterrey. La Zona Metropolitana de Monterrey (ZMM) se encuentra casi en su totalidad dentro de la zona 9a, con las únicas excepciones en la Gran Sierra Plegada, la Sierra de la Silla, de las Mitras, del Fraile y San Miguel, el Cerro del Topo Chico, y otros picos hacia el noreste y noroeste. El área urbana y todas las cabeceras municipales de la metrópoli son, por lo tanto, uniformes en cuanto a temperaturas mínimas extremas. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 9 Zonificación Análoga de Rusticidad a las USDA Plant Hardiness Zones para Nuevo León (México) en el periodo 1981-2040, y su Importancia en la Reforestación Urbana Nativa puede considerarse una alternativa cercana y útil para la elección de especies de árboles urbanos adecuadas para las condiciones climáticas de la región. �La influencia de la Sierra Madre Oriental como embudo que concentra los vientos del norte y la falta de obstáculos orográficos a lo largo de las Grandes Llanuras de Norteamérica causan que, dadas las condiciones apropiadas, las temperaturas puedan desplomarse por debajo de los 0 °C dentro de la ZMM. Es necesario considerar esta escala de temperaturas para ayudar en la mejor toma de decisiones en cuestión de elección de especies, al descartar aquellos árboles que no puedan soportar temperaturas sostenidas menores a -3.9 °C dentro de la ZMM. Aunado a esto, el clima en la ZMM se considera extremoso debido al gran contraste entre las temperaturas invernales y estivales. Las especies elegidas deben soportar las temperaturas de hasta 45 °C que pueden ocurrir, particularmente hacia finales de abril y entre junio y agosto, además de estar adaptadas al pH alto de las rocas y suelos origen sedimentario y calcáreo presentes en la mayor parte del estado, como calizas de plataforma, lutitas, margas y algunas areniscas (Alanís-Flores et al., 1996; Alanís-Flores y González-Alanís, 2003). Un listado de especies nativas arbóreas y arbustivas propicias para la utilización en la reforestación urbana de la ZMM formulado a partir de Alanís-Flores et al. (1996), Alanís-Flores y González-Alanís (2003) y ZuritaZaragoza (2012), con información de rusticidad para el estado de Texas de Wasowski y Wasowski (1997) y Michael y Powell (2005) es presentado en la Tabla 3. Tabla 3: Listado de especies nativas notables para su utilización en la ZMM conforme a las zonas de rusticidad presentes en el estado de Nuevo León. Nombre Nombre Común Familia Zonas de Rusticidad Especies Arbóreas de Talla Grande (Banquetas y otras Áreas Verdes) Ebenopsis ebano (Berl.) Barneby & Grimes Ébano Fabaceae 8-11 Ehretia anacua (Terán & Berl.) I. M. Johnst. Anacua Boraginaceae 7-11 Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn. Huizache Fabaceae 9-11 Quercus polymorpha Cham. & Schl. Encino Roble Fagaceae 7-10 Neltuma glandulosa (Torr.) Britton & Rose Mezquite Dulce Fabaceae 7-13 Neltuma laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd) Britton & Rose Mezquite Suave Fabaceae 8-13 Celtis laevigata Willd. Palo Blanco Cannabaceae 5-10 Cupressus arizonica Greene Ciprés Azul Cupressaceae 6-10 Cupressus lusitanica Mill Ciprés Blanco Cupressaceae 8-11 Platanus occidentalis L. Álamo de Río, Álamo Sicomoro Platanaceae 4-10 Platanus rzedowskii Nixon & J.M. Poole Álamo de Río, Álamo Sicomoro Platanaceae 6-10 Ulmus crassifolia Nutt Olmo de Texas Ulmaceae 6-9 Especies Arbóreas de Talla Grande (Parques, Áreas Verdes, Jardines Grandes) Acer negundo L. Maple del Huajuco, Maple Mexicano Sapindaceae 2-10 Carya illinoinensis (Wang.) K. Koch Nogal de Nuez Lisa Juglandaceae 5-10 Taxodium mucronatum Ten Sabino, Ahuehuete Cupressaceae 8-11 Pinus cembroides Zucc. Pino Piñonero Pinaceae 6-9 Especies Arbóreas de Talla Mediana (Banquetas y otras Áreas Verdes) Cordia boissieri DC. Anacahuita Boraginaceae 8-11 Dermatophyllum secundiflorum (Ortega) Gandhi & Reveal Colorín Fabaceae 7-10 Erythrostemon mexicanus (A. Gray) Gagnon & Lewis Hierba del Potro Fabaceae 9-11 Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) DC. Mimbre Bignoniaceae 6-10 Especies de Arbustos Leucophyllum frutescens (Berl.) I. M. Johnst. Cenizo Scrophulariaceae 8-10 Bouvardia ternifolia (Cav.) Schlecht Trompetilla Rubiaceae 7-10 Havardia pallens (Benth.) Britton & Rose Tenaza Fabaceae 9-11 Salvia coccinea Buc’hoz ex Etl. Mirto Coral, Salvia Escarlata Lamiaceae 7-10 Salvia microphylla Kunth Mirto Rojo, Salvia de Graham Lamiaceae 7-10 Salvia greggii A.Gray Mirto Rosa, Salvia de Otoño Lamiaceae 6-10 Salvia × jamensis J.Compton Salvia “Red Lips” Lamiaceae 7-10 Poliomintha bustamanta B.L.Turner Orégano de Higueras Lamiaceae 8-10 Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia Escarlata Asteraceae 9-11 10 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �El mapa de zonas de rusticidad generado en este trabajo considera un escenario futuro de cambios en temperaturas y otras condiciones climáticas, por lo que es esperado que no coincida con el publicado por el USDA (2012), generado a partir de promedios de temperaturas mínimas extremas en años anteriores al de publicación. Sin embargo, ciertas zonas de los Estados Unidos muestran una buena similitud entre los dos mapas. Por ejemplo, el estado de Texas está dividido por la USDA en las zonas 6b, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b, 9a, 9b y 10a en bandas casi perfectamente paralelas desde el noroeste hacia el sureste. En el mapa generado en este trabajo, el mismo estado muestra un arreglo similar de ocho zonas, comenzando con la 7a en el extremo noroeste y terminando en la 10b en la zona de Port Isabel, South Padre Island y Boca Chica, con un desplazamiento de una subzona en todo el estado. Los estados más septentrionales de los Estados Unidos de América muestran el cambio de zonas más grande. Minnesota, por ejemplo, contiene desde la zona 2b hasta la 5a en el mapa del USDA, mientras que en el generado en este trabajo corresponde desde la zona 3b hasta la 5a, esta última mostrando una expansión en área hasta más de un tercio del área total del estado. Los cambios o desplazamientos en zonas ya han sido expuestos previamente en trabajos como Windham et al. (2018), que comparan la distribución de zonas entre 1990 y 2015 como resultado del cambio climático, con una tendencia de desplazamiento hacia el norte de las zonas más bajas, de la misma forma que lo mostrado en este trabajo. El mapa de zonas de rusticidad publicado por el USDA en 1990 (Del Tredici, 1990) incluyó a México y Canadá. El estado de Nuevo León, bajo esta cartografía, correspondía a las zonas 9a, 9b y 10a, ya que no incluía el detalle de la orografía. Monterrey y su zona metropolitana se encontraban dentro de la zona 9b, una subzona por debajo de la mostrada en este trabajo. Por otro lado, las áreas incluidas en la zona 11 en ambos mapas coinciden sin tomar en cuenta la orografía en estados como Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. La zona metropolitana de Monterrey, al estar en la zona 9a, podría presentar temperaturas mínimas extremas entre los -6.7 °C y -3.9 °C. En comparación, durante el Frente Frío #35 y la Tormenta Invernal #9, entre el 14 y 19 de febrero de 2021, se reportaron temperaturas mínimas entre los 0 °C y -7 °C (AccuWeather, 2022). Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, es una de las ciudades más al norte del país, y presenta algunas de las temperaturas más bajas en una zona urbana en México. De acuerdo con reportes periodísticos, la urbe registró hasta -17 °C el 3 de febrero de 2011, -10 °C el 14 de febrero de 2021, y hasta -7 °C en febrero de 2022 (Meza, 2022). Según el mapa presentado en este trabajo, Ciudad Juárez, al estar en la zona 7b, registraría mínimas extremas de entre -15 °C y -12.2 °C. Las playas de Cancún, en el municipio de Benito Juárez, Quintana Roo, están indicadas como una zona 11b, con temperaturas mínimas extremas entre 7.2 °C y 10 °C. De acuerdo con el SMN (2022), esta zona Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 presentó temperaturas de hasta 9.5 °C el 12 de marzo de 1996. Las heladas de febrero de 2021 correspondientes a una zona 9a causaron la pérdida de numerosos ejemplares de especies como Delonix regia (Flamboyán, resistente a la zonas 10 - 12), Ficus benjamina (Ficus, resistente a las zonas 10 - 12), F. microcarpa (Laurel de la India, resistente a zonas 9b - 11) y los abundantes Leucaena leucocephala (Guaje), peligrosa especie exótica invasiva, que se vieron gravemente afectadas al ser sólo resistentes a las zonas 9b – 11. A pesar de tener un efecto benéfico al eliminar especies poco apropiadas para el clima de la región, también trajo como consecuencia el enorme riesgo de incendios por material inflamable y caídas de árboles debido a los fuertes vientos y altas temperaturas presentes a lo largo del año (von der Meden en Cantú, 2021), de forma similar a lo sucedido tras el fenómeno meteorológico de febrero de 2011, de acuerdo con Alanís-Flores (2011), quien describe, entre los efectos negativos de la pérdida de arbolado por eventos de temperaturas mínimas extremas, la falta de sombra, disminución de humedad relativa en la zona urbana, incremento y expansión de las islas de calor, aumento del consumo eléctrico, mayor suspensión de particulado en el aire por la pérdida de los árboles como filtros biológicos, menor captación y retención de carbón, y el deterioro del paisaje y belleza de la ciudad. A pesar de que se ha popularizado su plantación extensiva en los últimos 25 años, la especie Quercus virginiana Mill (Encino siempreverde) no es considerada nativa para México, ya que su distribución tan sólo abarca la vertiente del Golfo de México desde el extremo este de Texas hasta Carolina del Norte y Virginia, en los Estados Unidos de América (Carey, 1992). Quercus fusiformis Small (Encino molino), una especie antes considerada una variedad de la anterior por su cercanía y similitudes morfológicas se distribuye desde Oklahoma hasta el noreste mexicano (Nixon, 1997), y es adecuada para su plantación en áreas amplias como parques y jardines con riego suficiente, pero no en banquetas o áreas reducidas por su gran talla en su madurez. 11 Zonificación Análoga de Rusticidad a las USDA Plant Hardiness Zones para Nuevo León (México) en el periodo 1981-2040, y su Importancia en la Reforestación Urbana Nativa Discusión �Conclusión Se buscó crear una zonificación análoga a la de la USDA con el fin de poder utilizar la información disponible sobre la amplia industria hortícola de los Estados Unidos de América. Su utilidad radica, en el caso de Nuevo León, al buscar prevenir la venta y utilización de especies vegetales de ornato y forestales que puedan verse afectadas por las esporádicas, pero inevitables, heladas fuertes que llegan al estado cada cierto tiempo. El proyecto de la Norma Ambiental Estatal NAE-SMA-007-2022 sobre arbolado urbano del estado de Nuevo León toma como prioridad la plantación de especies nativas y algunas no nativas, pero resistentes a las condiciones climáticas del estado. Por lo tanto, la cartografía creada y la información recopilada en este trabajo puede resultar útil como una de las condicionantes al momento de elegir una especie de arbolado dentro del estado y prevenir la pérdida de grandes cantidades de árboles en eventos de clima gélido extremo. Asimismo, es necesario producir información de rusticidad para especies nativas de Nuevo León que no se encuentren en la bibliografía producida en los Estados Unidos de América, y desarrollar a mayor profundidad información acerca de otros factores climáticos y edafológicos que puedan determinar la viabilidad de la utilización de ciertas especies vegetales ornamentales en el estado de Nuevo León, previniendo el uso de especies tropicales o templadas que no toleren el clima de la región. Agradecimientos Al Dr. Hidalgo Rodríguez-Vela, por integrarnos al Laboratorio de Paleobiología durante el Servicio Social del semestre Agosto-Diciembre de 2022 donde se produjo este trabajo y por su apoyo técnico y comentarios. Al Dr. José Ignacio González-Rojas y al Dr. Antonio Guzmán-Velasco, por el apoyo técnico y recomendaciones en diversos proyectos realizados para el Departamento de Ecología. A nuestra querida compañera Valeria Barra-Suárez, por su apoyo en la redacción y revisión de este manuscrito. Literatura citada AccuWeather. 2022. February 2021. Monthly Temperatures. En: https://www.accuweather.com/en/mx/monterrey/244681/ february-weather/244681?year=2021 (consultado el 04/07/2022). Alanís-Flores, G. J. 2011. Los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos: efecto de las bajas temperaturas en la vegetación arbórea del área metropolitana de Monterrey. Ciencia UANL. 14(2). 115-120. Alanís-Flores, G. J., Cano-Cano, G., y Rovalo-Merino, M. 1996. Vegetación y Flora de Nuevo León, una Guía Botánico-Ecológica. CEMEX. Alanís-Flores, G. J., y González-Alanís, D. 2003. Flora Nativa Ornamental para el Área Metropolitana de Monterrey. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León; R. Ayuntamiento de Monterrey Aram, F., Higueras-García, E., Solgi, E., y Mansournia, S. 2019. Urban green space cooling effect in cities. 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Sistemática y Ecología Acuática, Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, México. ORCID: 0000 0002 6931 0694 savs551216@hotmail.com; ssalazar@ecosur.mx 14 �Abstract Resumen In this contribution some questions inherent to the study of biodiversity and of marine annelids (mainly polychaetes) from a perspective of historical and environmental transitions are addressed. The origin of the term biodiversity is revised and its quick displacement of the political discourse in favor of sustainable development is briefly commented, although the last one has been difficult to specify and reach. The importance of marine annelids is summarized within a perspective of contemporary environmental crises that have been more severe for the marine realm. The history of the oceanographic explorations is briefly analyzed from the marketing of spices to the discovery of species, and of the transformation of the cabinets of curiosities to natural history museums. A brief review is presented for the museums housing marine annelids, including historical and current specialists and an appendix listing the main publications available of world collections. The relevance of latitude and temperature for explaining the distribution of the species is reviewed including the early establishment of biogeographic regions and provinces, and on the contrasting situation among marine annelid species because most were considered cosmopolitans until the 1980s, when planetary revisions became more frequent. This contribution contains a series of proposals including one for renegotiation and reduction of the burden of external debt payment in each nation, and other medullary aspects as the formation of human resources, the need to upgrade infrastructure and laboratories, to carry out inventories, catalogues or illustrated keys, and to clarify the confusions in the regional fauna, to make studies on speciation, and on the need for having national monitoring programs and actions facing climate change. En esta contribución atiendo algunas cuestiones relativas al estudio de la biodiversidad y de los anélidos marinos (principalmente poliquetos) desde una perspectiva de las transiciones históricas y ambientales. Se revisa brevemente el origen del término biodiversidad y su rápido desplazamiento en el discurso político por el de desarrollo sostenible, aunque este último ha sido difícil de especificar o alcanzar. La importancia de los anélidos marinos se concibe desde las crisis ambientales contemporáneas, que han sido más severas en el medio marino. Se analiza la historia de la exploración oceanográfica desde el mercadeo de especias al descubrimiento de las especies, y de la transformación de los gabinetes de curiosidades en museos de historia natural. Se repasan los museos que contienen colecciones de anélidos marinos incluyendo los especialistas históricos y actuales, y se agrega un apéndice con las publicaciones principales sobre las colecciones del mundo. Para explicar la distribución de las especies se revisa la importancia de la latitud y de la temperatura incluyendo el establecimiento de regiones y provincias biogeográficas, y en la situación contrastante en las especies de anélidos marinos porque la mayoría eran consideradas cosmopolitas hasta los años 1980, cuando las revisiones planetarias se hicieron más frecuentes. Se presenta una serie de propuestas incluyendo una para renegociar y reducir la carga del pago de la deuda externa para cada nación, así como otros aspectos fundamentales para la formación de recursos humanos, la necesidad de actualizar la infraestructura de los laboratorios, de realizar inventarios, catálogos o claves ilustradas, y para clarificar las confusiones en la fauna regional, estudiar la especiación, y en la necesidad de realizar programas nacionales de monitoreo y de acciones para atenuar el cambio climático. Keywords: Taxonomy, polychaetes, external debt, science policy, research. Palabras clave: Taxonomía, poliquetos, deuda externa, política científica, investigación. 15 �To the memory of Dr. Paulo da Cunha Lana (20 april 1956-30 june 2022) Introduction T his contribution was generated because of two factors. First, an invitation by some Peruvian colleagues to address the importance of advancing the study of marine annelids in their country. Second, the announcement of the opening remarks by the late Dr. Paulo Lana for the Symposium of Latinamerican Polychaetes, which would include his perspective for future studies on the group. My first scientific popular note dealt with the importance of polychaetes in the marine realm (Salazar-Vallejo 1981a). I had just finished my Biologist degree thesis on the collection of polychaetes of the University of New León (Salazar-Vallejo 1981b), and I did this once the collection was organized, which by then it contained 74 species, 59 genera and 26 families. This shows that I have had an interest in the thematic of the Peruvian meeting during the last 40 years. At the same time, I thanked the opportunity to review some relevant background information, and address other issues that could empower the study of biodiversity and polychaete taxonomy. In this area of science policy, during the last 20 years I have tried to promote discussions and specific actions, including a brief 6-yr plan for advancing science (Salazar-Vallejo 2001). I will present below the general ideas in a frame of transitions. The Cambridge Dictionary defines transition as a noun: a change from one form or type to another, or the process by which this happens; or as a verb: to change, or make someone or something change, from one form or situation to another. A change is involved, indeed, and this is precisely what I hope to emphasize in this contribution. Then, I will emphasize the changes that we can, and we should do as individuals (even as nations) for the study of biodiversity, although I cannot offer precise recipes, some experiences or concrete proposals will be introduced. 16 In the same fashion, I will also refer to the importance of environmental transitions to understand the changes in the regional biotas as the ecological horizon (SalazarVallejo et al. 2014), defined by temperature, salinity and substrate, are being modified. The final part of this note is to propose a series of action plans, to supplement those proposed by Tarazona et al. (2003) and Aguirre & Canales (2017) especially for biodiversity research in Peru. I will emphasize that the relevance of temperature and latitude for explaining the species distribution was early recognized, and that contrary to what was the case for other benthic invertebrate groups, polychaetes were considered anomalous because many species were apparently cosmopolitan. This idea became deeply incorporated in faunistic studies up to the 1980s, when we began making direct comparisons with type material (revisions). This is a critical transition (personal and institutional) that might be difficult to carry out but is very important for advancing knowledge. In science policy, I will comment on the inherent problems for all nations because of the burden of paying their external debt and the need to reduce the payment for having additional resources to invest in improving food production and supplies, education and health services and, of course, to strengthen the structure and function of science. My conclusions are: 1) the marine annelids are ecologically outstanding because of their biomass, abundance, and ecological relevance (and for reducing our ignorance). 2) although the interests in the exploration of biodiversity were intensified by commercial activities, once nations attained a sort of economic freedom the interests changed towards knowing little relevant organisms for direct marketing, because of an increase in other types of values (aesthetic, recreational, knowledge); and 3) the biodiversity crisis is not new, despite its current severity. Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �History Biodiversity is an integrative concept that was proposed and popularized by the formicologist Edward Wilson (Wilson 1988) to understand structural and functional aspects of the organisms in a defined space, their genetic variability, the ecosystems that conform, and the landscapes or regions where they occur, including the ecological and evolutionary processes involving them. The popularity and success of the concept are manifested because in Costa Rica the National Institute of Biodiversity settled down in 1989, with private funds and with the main objective of generating biological collections, whereas Mexico generated a trusteeship to establish the National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO after its Spanish name) in 1992. CONABIO’s largest successes center on databases of Mexican biota, and a great number of books on the same subject. We were lucky enough to generate a book on Mexican marine and coastal biodiversity (Salazar-Vallejo & González, 1993) that was recently improved by a series of volumes carried out by many authors, and also endorsed by CONABIO. were not followed, and probably not fully understood. Regretfully, most previsions have been shown to be accurate (Hall 2022). We must be optimistic and become more involved in changing the current conditions, but we cannot be naïve by expecting the current problems to be solved without additional efforts. We must do it by ourselves. The importance of the problems currently faced by humanity cannot be underestimated, such as health preservation and improvement, education, food supplies, or access to drinking water and sewage treatment. Further, acute famine or drought crises in many countries are becoming chronic in several regions of the world, rendering obtuse any call of attention for dealing with other human concerns. In fact, in an economy in crisis, in any nation, there is usually a very limited or no economic freedom for including other pending issues. I will return later on to this matter, especially because the burden of external debt suffocates the economy of many countries, but let me turn to other issues to provide a more comprehensive background for the following issues in this contribution. Marine annelids It is interesting that in the ecological processes included in the biodiversity concept our interaction with nature was also considered, but our use of the natural resources was likely not emphasized enough. It should not be surprising that another integrative concept, ‘sustainable development,’ was more quickly incorporate into the political discourse. The concept arose in 1987 after the Report of the World Commission on the Environment and Development, better-known as the Bruntland Report because it was led by the Norwegian Gro Harlem Bruntland, president of the commission (Naciones Unidas 1987). The commission concentrated on five items: population and human resources, species and ecosystems, energy, industry, and urban challenge. Thus, although the report considered that many species were at risk and that the situation deserved primary political concern, species were considered as resources for development. The commission characterized the concept of sustainable development “as the one that guarantees the necessities of the present without decreasing the possibilities of the future generations to satisfy its own needs.” The difficulties for bringing the concept into reality were noted early. Furthermore, and even a special number of the journal Ecological Applications conjugated several perspectives and recommendations that were not followed, emphasizing the diverging perspectives of scientists and decision makers (Salazar-Vallejo & González 1994). This conflict between proposals and reality was noted in Mexico regarding tourism development (Salazar-Vallejo & González 1995). Annelids are one of the main metazoan groups living in the marine benthos; although the group includes some representatives in continental waters and even humid tropical forests, most of the more than 21,000 described species lives in the sea (Read, 2019). Marine annelids were considered as equivalent to polychaetes, separated from other groups such as echiurans or sipunculids, as well as the more traditional classes of oligochaetes and leeches. Recent studies show that these divisions are not supported by the information provided by genetic markers, such that polychaetes is currently used as a colloquial term and not as a taxonomic group, like it was it in the past, although for didactic purposes this distinction is still widely used (Harris et al. 2021). In fact, there is a long history of divergence between environmental concerns and recommendations given by scientists, and the resulting negative consequences of factual natural resources management led by decision makers (Diamond 2005). For example, the proposals by Meadows et al. (1972) were regarded as alarmists and The expectation for being able to continue doing taxonomy during the next 12 centuries, and to get the required funding seems unreachable, especially because the transformation of the planetary naturalness has reached such a negative point that many believe we are in the sixth mass extinction, with a current extinction Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 Although we have written records about marine organisms from Aristotle, a recent estimate indicated that 90% of marine species could be undescribed (Mora et al. 2011). The estimate also included the time and cost inherent in finishing our task: we would need 1,200 additional years on one hand, and over the other hand, if we take into account that describing a new species amount to about 50,000 US dollars, we would need about 360 thousand millions of American dollars. Even if these figures are taken in half, the number of undescribed species would still be overwhelming, and finding the estimated funding for describing them is so high that it cannot be expected to be available for taxonomists. Biodiversity crisis 17 Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions Biodiversity �Figure 1. Changes in size and abundance of fishes in Florida in 50 years: 1957-2007 (reproduced with authorization: Corey Malcom, Florida Keys History Center). rate of 7.5-13.0% (Robin 2011, Cowie et al. 2022). In the American continent, the most drastic environmental changes introduced after the arrival and success of the European expansion, and later conjugated with the American pattern for the excessive use of natural resources began to be noted from the 1800s (Jackson 1997). We can easily extrapolate this to the marine realm to understand that marine ecosystems have been chronically impoverished. Elton (1927) proposed that the structure of the abundance of the organisms in the different trophic levels resemble a pyramid, with the organisms in decreasing numbers coincident with an upward movement in successive trophic levels. Probably a less well-known fact is that the same author warned that the great abundance of any animal species does not imply an escape from extinction (Elton 1927: 113), but numbers have guided our extraction quotas, regretfully. Thus, the loss of the top predators implies that the pyramid is truncate, and the disappearance of top predators has been referred to as ecological truncation. It is well known that there are drastic effects in the ecosystem, and this approach has been used for general analysis (Trebilco et al. 2013). Environmental changes are better documented in continental ecosystems. For example, the distribution of the medium-sized predators, or meso-predators, has increased by 60% in the United States during the last two centuries (Prugh et al. 2009), mainly after the disappearance of wolves, cougars, and jaguars. Although we have different quality and duration of statistics, Pacoureu et al. (2021) showed that the populations of sharks and rays had decreased by 71% from the 1970s. While Pinsky et al. (2019) emphasized that marine ectotherm species are more susceptible to global warming than terrestrial ones, because the impacts on marine biotas are larger. Two publications by Daniel Pauly deserve to be commented for understanding the disaster of marine fisheries in the world, and for supplementing the panorama of changes for marine organisms. In the first one, Pauly (1995) coined the concept of the ‘shifting baseline syndrome’ and indicated with it that the perception that different generations of fish biologists 18 gather by generating their own database, avoid taking into account any anecdotic information, critical for indicating earlier accounts of fish size and abundance (Fig. 1), and he added two stressing statements: 1) off the Atlantic Canadian coast the fish biomass had decreased to less than 10% of what it was two centuries ago; and 2) the top predators of the past trophic networks collapsed because they should have smaller fecundity and resilience before fishing than the species we now exploit. In the second note, Pauly et al. (1998) indicated that fisheries have been operating at descending levels in the trophic networks, as a consequence of the populational depression of top predators, and that this implies that the production can be increased initially (as it was often the case), followed by a halt and then becoming stagnant or collapse. Transitions History: Spices and species The consumption of spices and their marketing is as old as human populations, especially in the region from India to Indonesia. For example, towards year 2000 before our era the Route of the Cinnamon existed among Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and eastern Africa (UNESCO 1993). Spices popularity and their use as flavorings, aromatizing, perfume, or medicines reached the Roman Empire with the Route of the Silk, about 100 years before our era, and this route had a continental part and a marine one (UNESCO s/a). The marine route reached the Mediterranean through the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea, and in both paths, tribute was charged by the Arabs, which often increased the prices of the spices a lot; they were sometimes worth their weight in gold. In the XV century the Age of Exploration began in Europe, and this time has also been called the Age of Discovery. It started mainly to find a shortcut to those spice-producing regions, then known as the Indies. This was a consequence of the fall of Constantinople in 1453 before the Ottoman Empire, which interrupted the routes through land (Cartwright, 2021). Spain and Portugal undertook the search for a marine route, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492 and Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �However, the biological exploration was not headed by the Spaniards or Portuguese. Rather, the domain of marine marketing changed to Dutch, French and English fleets, and these latter countries were those that carried out most of the expeditions for searching species, no longer for spices. The transition of the domain of the seas was made after the successful introduction of tea to Europe and America (Rappoport, 2017; Karlsson, 2022), and during the Golden Age of Piracy (1650-1726), when the governments of France, Holland and England strengthened their fleets and encouraged the attacks to the merchant ships in the Atlantic (RMG, s/a). There are other important features that must be considered. For example, some regard that the defeat of the Spanish Armada in England in 1588, besides the 80-year war against Holland, from 1568 up to 1648 (Johnson, s/a a), also damaged a lot the Spanish treasure. The advances of Dutch and Englishmen societies were initiated and maintained by their companies of marine marketing: East Indies Company, settled down in 1600, and the Dutch East Indies Company, established in 1602 (Clulow & Mostert 2018). The British company had an army twice as large as the English Army (Johnson s/a b). These nations retained their success from the 1700 after the succession war in Spain (1701-1714), that later depleted the Spanish treasure. It is interesting that although the great majority of pirates were male, some women also participated (Vencel 2018). Scientific expeditions Wikipedia (s/a c) listed 70 scientific expeditions from 1735 to 1899. Among them, and despite the fact that there were several involving several countries, it stands out that the British carried out 29, the French 24, the Russian 5, the Americans 3, the Italians 2, and with one each Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Spain and Sweden. The main objectives included territorial expansions, and samples of organisms were usually brought back to the corresponding countries. The impact of their results on the knowledge of marine annelids depended on the inclusion of people collecting and later processing and identifying the organisms. This explains why we find familiar the names of some expeditions such as those made with the ships Belgica, Challenger, Discovery, Eugenie, Galathea, Gazelle, Novara, Valdivia and Vittor Pisani. The Expedia note did not include the expeditions of the Albatross of the United States which also had outstanding results for our research field (see Read 2019 for more details on this). In the XX century, some expeditions by famous research vessels stood out: Atlantis, Calypso, Discovery, Galathea, Investigator, Meteor, Polarstern, Siboga, Snellius and Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 Vityaz, as well as the trips carried out by the Paris Museum commonly called Musorstom Expeditions (Salazar-Vallejo 1999), and the many multinational expeditions to the Antarctic. Some other data can be seen in the compilation by Wüst (1964) for the period 1873-1960, as well as some other notes on the history of oceanography (Anon. s/a). A large part of those materials was processed, but interestingly, another significant part continues without being fully processed and they are deposited in several museums. As it has been emphasized repeatedly, a large part of the planet’s biodiversity has already been collected, but it continues without being studied, such that the new discovery expeditions are taking place in the museums of the world (Salazar-Vallejo, 2018). Cabinet of curiosities to museums and societies A glance at the history of the botanical gardens and museums of natural history in Europe will facilitate understanding the above generalization. The medicinal use of plants is indeed as old as humanity, but the interest to cultivate exotic, medicinal plants or not, paved the road for non-utilitarian curiosity and research. Maintaining plants of different regions for their beauty or other properties, implied an interesting transition in the perception of nature, and some interesting developments for botanical gardens were carried out through universities or research societies. The oldest botanical garden was established by the University of Pisa in 1544, and by 1595 it had a museum of natural sciences (Wikipedia, s/a a). Other Italian gardens of the XVI century were settled down in 1545 (Padua; Florence) and 1568 (Bologna). The first one in Spain was in Valencia (1567), and then would come later those of Leiden (1590), Montpellier, and Heideberg (1593). Others that deserve to be mentioned are the ones in Paris (1635), and those of Amsterdam (1638) and Uppsala (1655) because Linnaeus worked in both. Another showcase of the war havocs is that the gardens of Madrid and Lisbon were installed much later; the first one in 1755, and the second in 1873. The equivalent initiative of botanical gardens for the study of animals is the zoological garden; however, the early manifestation of the curiosity for exotic things, including minerals and organisms or their parts, were the cabinets of curiosities or rooms of marvels (Wikipedia s/a b). Their collections sometimes promoted the establishment of some natural history museums. The oldest cabinets are considered Dutch (1520), but the first one documented was in Naples (1599). Although from the Renaissance, the feudal gentlemen, or other members of the royalty, usually included artists, engineers, inventors, and natural historians, the scientific societies arose in the XVII century, being the English (1660) only six years older than the French (1666). However, what are regarded as the first scientific journals were launched by these academies in 1665; despite the almost 400 years since then, scientific articles have changed little as tools for scientific communication (Gibson 1982). 19 Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions he met with America, while Bartolomé Dias in 1488 and then Vasco da Gama in 1497-1499 followed the African continent and although Dias hardly surrounded Good Hope’s Cape, it was da Gama who arrived in India. The great wealth that these two empires reached was due to the exploitation of the spices from India to Indonesia for Portugal, and the gold, silver, and other products of America for Spain, including corn, tomato, beans, pumpkins, and potatoes (Mann 2011; Grose 2019). �Many cabinets remained private, but large, long-term collections often turned out to State institutions as monarchies were transformed into republics. As for the museums of natural history (Farrington 1915), personal initiatives continued to be very significant; first, by generating collections or by gathering funding, and second, by moving into founding museums. The doctor and Irish naturalist Hans Sloane generated great wealth thanks to the commercial success of selling as candy the mixture of chocolate with milk and sugar, and he transferred his huge library and collections made in Jamaica to the Museum of Natural History of London (1759). James Smithson, an English that never stepped on the American continent, inherited its fortune such that an academic entity could be settled down in the United States for impelling knowledge; with their inheritance money the Smithsonian Institution was established, and now includes, among others, the National Museum of Natural History in Washington (1846). Regarding the quest for funding, Louis Agassiz negotiated, sometime before the Civil War in the United States, 200,000 dollars to establish the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Harvard (1852), then it was consolidated in 1867 with the contribution of 150,000 dollars by George Peabody, and another similar amount for establishing another museum in Yale. In the United States, some academies of sciences also impelled the establishment of museums, such as that of California, in San Francisco, or the one of Philadelphia, whereas others have been established by municipal or county governments such as those of New York, and Los Angeles. Other important museums were established by the corresponding Empires, such as the museums of Natural History of Amsterdam and Leiden, Berlin, Brussels, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Paris, and Saint Petersburg. In most cases, the transition of empires to republics was not as turbulent as to suspend them, and they continue active up to now. The importance of the collections depends, in good measure, on the number of specimens that they store (Fig. 2). In that sense, in decreasing order the list would be Washington, London, Paris, New York, Berlin, Los Angeles, Chicago, Harvard, San Francisco, and Sydney (Novacek and Goldberg 2013). For the marine annelids, the above hierarchy could be modified by considering the deposit of materials made after expeditions, as well as the permanency of expert taxonomists that have enriched each collection, and generated publications after their materials. The names of the involved authors will indicate the relevance of each collection and they go in alphabetical sequence for the city where the collections are now. Appendix 1 includes a list of the available publications dealing with these collections. Berlin (and Wroclaw, Poland) contains the materials of the oldest German expeditions, studied by Ernst Ehlers and Adolph-Edouard Grube. In Berlin the curator is Birger Neuhaus. In Wroclaw they are limited to the material processed by Grube, who became the museum director; the responsible person is Jolanta Jurkowska. Copenhagen stores the materials studied by Grube and gathered by Örsted and Mörch in the American coasts, as well as those that were studied by Elise WesenbergLund, Jörgen Kirkegaard and Danny Eibye-Jacobsen. The last one is the curator of the collection. Stockholm contains the materials studied by Johan Kinberg and other Swedish specialists that followed him. The curator is Lena Gustavson. Hamburg contains some materials studied by Grube, but mainly those published by Hermann Augener and Gesa Hartmann-Schröder. The curator is Jenna Moore. Harvard maintains the materials that Augener and Ehlers studied after the Albatross expeditions in the Great Caribbean. The curator is Adam Baldinger. Leiden received the materials of the former museum in Amsterdam, The Netherlands; these two collections contain the materials of the Siboga expedition in Indonesia, partially analyzed by Rutgerus Horst, and what could be the most important collection of serpulids, organized and studied by Harry ten Hove. The curator is Hannco Bakker. Figure 2. Largest museums in the World after the specimens they contain (in millions) (redrawn after Novacek and Goldberg, 2013). 20 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �London contains the collections carried out by English ships and studied by William McIntosh, Frank Potts, Cyril Crossland and Charles Monro, and there were two specialists for many years: Alex Muir and David George. The curator is Emma Sherlock. Paris contains most of the materials studied by Pierre Fauvel, although the collection of slides remains in Angers; and the materials of Armand de Quatrefages and those of the Baron de Saint-Joseph, among others. Charles Gravier divided his time between corals and polychaetes. The curator is Tarik Meziane. Saint-Petersburg, Russia, includes the materials of the Russian specialists from Annenkova and Zachs, and there used to be three specialists working simultaneously: Pavel Ushakov, Galina Buzhinskaya and V.G. Averintsev. The non-type materials and others resulting from the expeditions of the Vityaz and other Russian ships are in Moscow, in the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology; it contains the largest amount of deep sea specimens from many localities around the World, some of them were studied by Raisa Levenstein. The curator in Saint-Petersburg is Sergei Gagaev. The contact in Moscow is Andrey Gebruk. Sydney includes the biggest collections of Australian polychaetes, and many from adjacent regions. Patricia Hutchings was the curator for many years, and she is now accompanied by Lena Kupriyanova; the curator is Alexandra Hegedus. Uppsala contains the materials of the species described by Arwidsson, Eliason, Hessle and Johansson. The contact is Erica Mejlon. Vienna includes part of the materials of Lwdvig Schmarda, and those studied by Paul Langerhans, Emil von Marenzeller and Werner Katzmann. The curator is Pedro Frade. Washington received the material of all the expeditions made with US federal funds including the materials analyzed by Ralph Chamberlin, or Aaron Treadwell, and there used to be three simultaneous curators: Marian Pettibone, Meredith Jones and Kristian Fauchald. Karen Osborn is now in charge of the collection. Yale Peabody Museum (New Haven) contains the type material described by Addison Verrill and Katherine Bush, including the materials of Bermuda. The contact is Eric Lazo-Wasem. I will finish this section by commenting three outstanding questions. The first one, type material is unrecoverable such that if we decide to study it, we must be extremely Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 careful when manipulating or observing the organisms, to avoid further damaging them. Second, the availability of museum materials has been diminishing, such that it is advisable to concentrate type material in one or a few institutions to make an optimal use of time and available funds; however, Germany, France and Holland have incorporated natural history museum material as national heritage, rendering it more complicated their loan overseas, the institution, or both. Third, most museums face financial problems, which have impacted their staff, growth or maintenance of their collections, despite a widespread acknowledgement of their relevance or importance (Naggs 2022; Rohwer et al. 2022). Although there are some signs of improvement since there are currently some funding available for postdoctoral scholarships, and funds for making research visits, this is far from being generalized. An additional question is that the importance of the type material depends on the need to compare type or nontype specimens with recent specimens to solve possible confusions. In our countries, we need regional reference collections for the corresponding biota, and a national museum to harbor type materials of the species that current or forthcoming taxonomists will describe. There is no Mexican Museum of Natural History including polychaetes, such that our collections depend on the institutions harboring them, and, because of their content, most collections are regional. Environment The Greeks Parménides and Aristotle classified the planet into torrid or tropical, temperate or frigid areas according to their latitude. The knowledge extended soon in connection with the distribution of plants in the continents, and the relevance of temperature was recognized including the type of soil, the slope or elevation, and the insolation. Among these factors, the easiest one to measure was temperature, such that it is not surprising the relevance of temperature has had to not only explain the distribution of plants, or climate, but the distribution of biotas over the Earth. This is very wellknown. What might not be so well understood is that our perception of this fact is hardly 200 years old, since there was not so much clarity before in the geography, nor were there enough, or sufficiently coordinated, meteorological stations, producing information as to generate a map of the world. Alexander von Humboldt was the first one to generate that synthesis. First, he carried out, with Aimé Bonpland, a study on the distribution of plants (de Humboldt and Bonpland 1805), then he coined the concept of isotherm in 1816, and he communicated in 1817 that he would make a compilation of the available information, but this task took him 30 years. He published the map of isotherms of the world in 1845 (Klein 2018). The extrapolation to the animals and the distinction of geographical kingdoms came one decade later. Sclater (1858) analyzed the distribution of birds, and then Wallace (1876) incorporated that of mammals and other animal groups and presented the biogeographic regions that we know and continue to use (Wills 2020). Another 21 Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions Los Angeles contains the abundant materials studied by Olga Hartman and Kristian Fauchald, mainly along the Eastern Pacific, although they also have large collections of other oceanic basins. Their current staff includes Leslie Harris and Kirk Fitzhugh, both have been very generous by supporting Latin American students during their research visits there. �Figure 3. Map made by Edward Forbes (1856) with the distribution of marin life and the homozoic belts along the planet, after the presence of fishes, moluscs and radiates (http://www.davidrumsey.com/maps940057-24718.html). less well-known fact is that Forbes (in Johnston, 1856) compiled the distribution of the marine fauna (fish, mollusks and radiates) in belts in a map (Fig. 3), and that Woodward (1856) presented the division in continental or marine provinces that he defined by having 50% of exclusive (endemic) species, based on the distribution of mollusks (Hedgpeth 1957: 360). Some other historical issues are available elsewhere (Ebach 2015), but my intention here is to show that the distribution of several groups of marine organisms was clearly understood during the second half of the XIX century. It is interesting that de Quatrefages (1864, 1865) considered that marine annelid species had a restricted distribution. However, despite including an enormous amount of information in his later monograph (de Quatrefages 1866), he did not dare to present a map indicating regions or provinces in the planet (SalazarVallejo 2020). In fact, there were no similar efforts made by specialists of marine annelids, and despite the available evidence of the restricted distribution documented for marine mollusks, Fauvel (1925) rejected it for marine annelids, and his perspective was accepted by his contemporaries. However, de Quatrefages ideas were openly rejected and severely criticized by Claparède (1867) and despite the defensive arguments provided by de Quatrefages (1868, 1869), there was a 22 widespread disdain for his opus magna. Not surprisingly, many researchers introduced European species group names for distant faunas, sustaining the idea of widely distributed species. Fauvel’s ideas could be summarized in two parts: 1) the species that have been described as different from other ocean basins are the same as those present along French seas if organisms of similar size are compared; and 2) the species of the Indian Ocean are also present in western Africa and in both tropical coasts of America. Consequently, most marine annelid species seemed cosmopolitan, and in following this idea or its derivation incorporated into faunas or catalogues for some countries, there lies the explanation for the presence of Mediterranean, Scandinavian, South African, and even Polar species names in the faunistic lists of some tropical American countries. Peru is interesting regarding its faunistic lists. The influence of Gesa Hartmann-Schröder was acknowledged by the late Dr. Juan Tarazona, since in his list of sedentary species (Tarazona 1974) only one of the publications by Olga Hartman on tropical Eastern Pacific polychaetes is incorporated, and two by the German specialist. I mean, the polychates sampled during the series of expeditions of the Allan Hancock Foundation with their ships Velero III and Velero IV (Fig. 4), which Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �By the way, the perspectives of these distinguished polychaete specialists could not be more divergent; Hartman considered that many species were cosmopolitan, whereas Hartmann-Schröder apparently regarded most of the species as having restricted distribution (or were undescribed). On the other hand, in the study of the rocky shore fauna of Lima (Paredes et al. 1999), 30 polychaete species were listed and at least 6 records are anomalous for that region. In fact, Hartman showed a peculiar tendency regarding the proportion of widely distributed species. She considered that the fauna of the north Pacific could include less than 2% of widely distributed species (Hartman 1955: 43). A different perspective was shown by Marian Pettibone in her study of New England species; 182 species were included, with 103 species being not limited the North Atlantic, but rather they were regarded as present in at least two major world ocean basins, meaning 57% of the total species (Pettibone, 1963). This large percentual difference between the north temperate faunas of the Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic could be the reason why Hartman changed her perspective since, in the Atlas of the polychaetes from California (Hartman 1968, 1969), the proportion of widely distributed species was modified to 34%. On the other hand, among Panamian polychaetes the widely distributed species fraction was 36% (Fauchald, 1977). The cosmopolitan species perspective was modified from the mid-1980s. Faunistic and baseline publications were continued (as they will certainly do for a long time). However, some specialists took a different path by making revisions, and clarifying confusions, especially for some species having anomalous records in different environmental conditions from the ones where they had been originally described. Another relevant factor for promoting the transitions towards making revisions was the start of the international polychaete conferences that began in Sidney, Australia (Hutchings 1984). Hutchings and Kupriyanova (2018) made an extended discussion on this subject and interested parties should consult it for further details. We have already commented on the importance of taxonomic revisions (Salazar-Vallejo 2018, 2019; SalazarVallejo and González 2016, 2020). However, because of the pressures and needs for publishing brief documents, and because this type of publication will continue dominating the world taxonomic scenario, we should remember Fauchald’s reflections (Fauchald 1989: 749): “A significant fraction of current papers are routine descriptions of a few new taxa, usually with a review paper as authority for the separate status of the new taxa; the material examined is minimal and comparison with types of previously described species is rare … Detailed and rigorously performed reviews of previously described taxa are lacking for nearly all polychaete families and very few are now on the horizon. Most of the investigations in which the bulk of new material is collected have poorly, or inappropriately defined, goals; however, one requirement runs through most of them: No matter what the stated purpose of the investigation is, the organisms collected must be identified to species. This requirement forces the researchers to make rapid, often incorrect decisions. A careful definition of study goals would leave both ecologists and polychaetologists happier and the few polychaetologists working full time on polychaete taxonomy less overwhelmed.” Figure A. Allan Hancock. B. Velero III. C. Velero IV, research vessels belonging to the Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California, used for sampling from California to Peru (photo source: A, Fraser, 1943; B, C, https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb43355540). Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 23 Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions sampled from southern California to Peru, although there were not many stations in the latter. �Proposals and recommendations As indicated above, this is the series of proposals and recommendations for supplementing the syntheses by Tarazona et al. (2003) and Aguirre and Canales (2017). Some transitions or recommendations can be carried out for the interested parties in a personal way. However, the most important ones must stem from well-planned and organized collective strategies by institutions or nations, including a time schedule beyond political times (Salazar-Vallejo et al. 2007, 2008). Then, two fundamental aspects must be considered for empowering these transitions: the economy, especially actions for relieving the burden of external debt payments and plans for the future. The current situation regarding the burden of paying external debt for all nations is so remarkably delicate that it has been regarded as a megathreat (Roubini 2022). The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have prepared a strategy that we should have in mind for improving the current conditions, and it consists of four steps in what they denominate the Common Framework (Estevão 2022) wherein countries should: 1. “establish a clear timeline for what should happen when in process: the creditors committee, for example ought to be formed within six weeks. 2. suspend—for the duration of the negotiations— debt-service payments to official creditors for all Common Framework applicants. 3. assess the parameters and processes of the comparability of treatment and clarify the rules for its implementation. 4. expand the Common Framework’s eligibility requirements, which are currently limited to 73 of the poorest countries. They should be expanded to cover other highly indebted and vulnerable lower-middle-income countries as well.” Fulfilling the conditions of paying the external debt implies a serious economic bleeding for every country because it consumes a large part of the national treasure, and this leakage has widespread repercussions, including the disinvestment in science (Rodríguez-Gómez 2021, Torres-González 2022). Certainly, now that the door is open for renegotiations, any process for alleviating this must be well-organized. The cancellation would be the best outcome, but it will be difficult to carry out (Anon. 2022). Consequently, national negotiators should point to only covering 50% of current annual payments such that independently of the national growth in each country, or of the success of their tax collection, the released money would help fulfill sharp and chronic needs. Then, the first proposal must be to establish a working group in the ministries or corresponding state secretaries, with an eye toward arriving at this type of agreements with international banks. If this type of initiative prospers, there will be additional resources to assist many other pending national issues, including the development of science. 24 The current Mexican situation can be illustrative. We currently have an inflation rate of slightly over 8%. The national budget for 2023 will exceed 8 trillion Mexican pesos and the distribution shows interesting trends (Fig. 5). For example, the Secretary of Education (SEP) will have an increment of 7%, the same as that for the Navy (SEMAR), while the Secretary of Health (Salud) will receive an increment of 5%, and the Army (SEDENA) and the Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT) will have increments of 4%, The most spectacular increments are expected in the Secretary of Tourism (Turismo) with 115%, that of the well-being (Bienestar) with 32% that includes the pensions to seniors and unemployed citizens, and that of Government (SEGOB) with an increment of 22%. Now the cost of paying the external debt has risen 9.1% and it is estimated to be 869,000 million Mexican pesos. This means, roughly, 10% of the national budget for 2023, and the quantity widely overcome investments for education and health combined, both essential for any country, and the cost of the externa debt also overcomes what will be dedicated to education and well-being. Of course, since we are scientists, not politicians or decision makers, the recommendation must point out to understand the changing conditions of world banks and push our politicians to move forward for releasing federal money for empowering critical areas. The second recommendation is establishing a program of national development, without committing it to political parties or the duration of the presidencies or congresses. The program must include optimizing education and health services, and improving the labor market. As part of this development program, the education or science ministry must take charge of the program corresponding to higher education and scientific research. A program like this would fulfill the needs pointed out by Tarazona et al. (2003) and Aguirre and Canales (2017), and to incorporate some supplementary aspects, especially the development of academic research groups to attend regional and national research problems. Of course, the perspective of the marine biodiversity will go bound with other more general initiatives about food supplies, health and education services in each nation; however, those interested in each topic or subtopic must prepare a long-term perspective trying to delineate what the desirable conditions would be for the future and how to reach them, so that they commit with the UNESCO initiative for the ocean sciences decade for sustainable development (IOC 2021). The economic improvements will allow us to reach the wanted future, and although we have already mentioned the matter, it is worthwhile to reiterate it. Human resources The best incentive to promote interest in science among young students is that jobs are available. Then, it is advisable to consider recruiting in a progressively adjusted proportion, such that in 20 years, only la crème de la crème (10-20% of the PhDs available) would be hired to carry out research activities. This means that Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Biodiversity and marine annelids: historical, environmental, and individual transitions Figure 5. A. Mexican national budget for 2023 (only a few sectors are shown, modified from IMCO 2022). B. Burden of external debt payment (modified from Saldívar, 2022; all figures in millions of Mexican pesos). because taxonomy is in such a critical condition, most graduates should be hired in the short term, and then a progressive reduction as the number of researchers reach a saturation point. After that level is reached, then hiring should be directed towards a renewal of positions when senior researchers approach retirement. Throughout this process, universities and research Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 centers should try to balance hiring between those who have got their degree overseas with those from national programs. As for training, both traditional morphological and modern molecular methods must be emphasized. By the way, it will also become a positive transition that some current practices regarding authorships are left behind; i.e., incorporating all committee members as 25 �coauthors, especially if they have not had a significant involvement in all phases of the investigation (McNutt et al. 2018). It is desirable that the increased interest in becoming authors in publications, result in an increment in the number and quantity of academic products, instead of solely enlarging the number of authors per paper. Infrastructure and labs The mechanism for recruiting researchers in Mexican universities has been by using a proportion depending on the number of students, since teaching is prevalent over research in most institutions. There are other pressing approaches making universities request their academic staff to cover a large number of classroom hours, as well as to fill different follow-up formats that nobody revises nor studies. If a similar case operates in your country, my proposal is that universities should the establishment of research centers and regional natural history museums, and this could work independently of any numeric relationship based on the number of students. Infrastructure will need modernization and the laboratories, should have reference collections in Peru. Aguirre and Canales (2017) indicated that there are only two collections, and that in both the material has not been fully processed, a certainly very widespread problem. Inventories Having inventories is a positive idea. However, taxonomists should move to the generation of illustrated catalogues or keys for regional species, in what Dr. Alberto Carvacho (1935-2017) denominated social-service taxonomy, and to clarify confusions in the regional fauna. The latter implies comparisons with the type material of the species in question. Of course, the empowerment of these actions also requires a coordination effort as part of a national research program. Catalogues and keys might not be regarded as directed to be published in a paper, especially during its initial results, because it is expensive and somehow limits upgrading the included information. Instead, it is advisable to think about on-line accessible documents, such as PDFs or interactive keys that might promote interest in the group, and studies in benthic ecology. On this ground, we made a book including many families of tropical American marine annelids (de León-González et al., 2021), but their utility is rather limited for the temperate South American fauna. Another recommendation for promoting the development of faunistic studies is to start with the most outstanding families, after their abundance, species richness, biomass, or ecological role including the provision of secondary space, as it is often the case for onuphids or sabellariids. Kristian Fauchald (1935-2015) recommended me, in 1979, to focus on one or a few polychaete families, such that I could understand the fine details of their morphology and of the corresponding literature (Salazar-Vallejo 2016). I did not follow his advice, but up to 1990 when I undertook studies of concrete groups and his recommendation to concentrate on one or a few families can be forwarded to any interested colleague. 26 In our research group we tried study to the main families of the Mexican Caribbean and added keys for identifying all species in the Grand Caribbean region. Because the Peruvian coast has tropical and temperate environments, it is advisable that their geographic study area includes a little far beyond their southern border along the northern Chilean coast after their oceanographic similarities, perhaps as far south as 15° South (Longhurst 1998: 317), which is above the northern Chilean border and belongs in the Peruvian or Humboldt province (Ibanez-Erquiaga et al. 2018), and by supplementing the keys that we made for the tropical annelids. At the same time, these traditional faunistic efforts might be supplemented by COI-barcoding methods, including meta-barcoding (Brandt et al. 2020). I should emphasize the necessity to publish our results, as soon as possible. It is a well-known fact that research efforts are finished only when they are published. It does not matter how brilliant any ideas or discoveries are, they will be relevant after they are openly available to other interested parties, present or future. Forgive me for repeating it: You must publish your results. Other reasons for pressing all interested parties for making publications are twofold: 1) Older results become progressively less relevant because the natural landscape is changing rapidly, and 2) Delaying the publication of our results puts our colleagues in risk of repeating research efforts because your earlier results are not available. Another reason for making publications might fall on the ground of professional ethics. We have certain privileges by undertaking a postgraduate degree, especially in countries with limited education, and this privilege becomes even more significant if we manage to have a job in a university or research center (Salazar-Vallejo 2022). Further, we should remember that our commitment is to investigate outstanding problems, as Peter Medawar recommended (Medawar 1979), and that our results should become available soon because, as the Romans used to say, Mors certa, sed hors incerta. Endemism, speciation, and monitoring Global warming has rendered complicated the delimitation of distribution ranges. It has been noted that tropical marine species migrate pole-wards six times faster than continental species (Poloczanska et al. 2013; Lenoir et al. 2020), and that the equatorial regions are reducing their species richness (Chaudhary et al. 2021). Consequently, it is advisable to understand that marine communities are being progressively modified. Studies on speciation should consider the above migration, and it can be carried out with a fine analysis of ecological (substrate, granulometry, depth, symbionts), or reproductive segregation (activity peaks, timing). On the other hand, if the institutions are on the shore, or relatively close to it, it is advisable to incorporate facilities for carrying out experimental studies, including reproduction and ecological segregation, because these research areas have been scarcely attended, despite the fact there are several compilations. This would include approaches resembling those made on the ecological Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �To carry out monitoring programs where every single organism must be identified to species is very complicated in Caribbean reef environments (Campos-Vázquez et al. 1999). It can be less cumbersome in sedimentary environments in so far as an adequate sampling approach is defined including sampling frequencies, number of stations, and minimal identification level. It is desirable that all nations have monitoring programs to estimate our environmental impact after landscape transformation, or of the chronic disposal of pollutants. It is advisable to delineate programs where the reports offer satisfactory and timely results for promoting improvement actions for any resource management. The example of Southern California has not been repeated elsewhere; the municipalities or cities have a legal obligation for carrying out monitoring of the environmental impact of sewage discharges. This program has been successful after the organization of SCAMIT, the Southern California Association of Marine Invertebrate Taxonomists (www. scamit.org). In Mexico, the Navy carries out microbiological monitoring (fecal coliforms) in the main national beaches to advise swimmers and visitors about their quality. In Peru there are similar programs in the Institute of the Sea, but they rarely have taxonomic objectives, or polychaetes are not identified, and samples are sometimes discarded (L. Aguirre-Méndez, Oct. 2022, pers. com.). There are several methods focusing on taxonomic sufficiency that, although they do not improve the knowledge of the regional fauna since they reduce the identification effort (Salazar-Vallejo 1991), at least they can provide timely information on our environmental impact or natural resources management. The method has progressively been used by different research groups because the number of taxonomic specialists has been decreasing (Terlizzi et al. 2003). Climate change Global warming and the modification of rainfall patterns is causing changes in the whole planet; higher temperatures, increasing acidification, and deoxygenation will have a widespread impact (Kleypas 2019), and some repercussions are also expected on mean sea level. In fact, Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 the nations have not undertaken ambitious programs to mitigate the effects of climate change rendering a somber planetary panorama. The best recommendation is to promote and implement national initiatives and concrete actions to reduce the upcoming changes we have caused. Some initiatives have been published in many countries, including Mexico (DGPCC 2013), and Peru (DGCCD 2020), but the concrete actions still need to follow the publication of the plans. We should also include this activity and promote changes by contacting politicians and other decision makers. Epilogue. I like to say that the current condition of science in our countries is our responsibility, at least in part. As senior scientists, we have probably tried to improve things, and might have been unsuccessful in most of our attempts. Nevertheless, we must continue promoting a transition to a better education, research, and job environment for our younger colleagues. Some might step aside thinking that this must be solved by future upcoming colleagues. I disagree. We must invest more efforts towards this improvement because none will do it for us. Acknowledgments This contribution was presented during the First Cycle of Conferences about the Importance of the Study of Marine Annelids for Peru, organized by Irene Melissa Herrera-Pérez (Universidad Ricardo Palma, Lima), and César Abram Cruz-Castellón (Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima). I thank them for their kind invitation. One of the reasons for making the combination of features included in this contribution was inspired by the late Dr. Paulo Lana. He was planning to share his perspectives about the future in the Latinamerican Polychaete Symposium in Chile. I could not thank him, regretfully, but with Luis F. Carrera we named one species after him. He deserved more and better tributes, but that was all we could do for acknowledging his efforts in promoting and consolidating polychaete studies in Brazil. 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Revision der australischen Polychaeten-Typen von Kinberg. Arkiv för Zoologi. 14(8): 37-42. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/6413310 Augener, H. 1925. Über Westindische und einige andere Polychaeten-Typen von Grube (Oersted), Krøyer, Mörch und Schmarda. Publikationer fra Universitetets Zoologiske Museum, København. 30: 1-47. Augener, H. 1934. Polychaeten aus den Zoologischen Museen von Leiden und Amsterdam, 4. (2. Polychaeten-Typen von Arm. Hansen 1881, aus dem Naturhistorischen Reichmuseum Leiden). Zoologische Mededeelingen. 17: 67(123)-160. https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/318471 Beck, L.A. (Ed.) 2018. Zoological Collections in Germany: The Animal Kingdom in its Amazing Plenty at Museums and Universities. Springer, Cham, 729 pp. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-44321-8 Belloc, G. 1953. Catalogue des types de polychètes du Musée Océanographique de Monaco. Bulletin de l’Institut Océanographique. 50(1027): 1-12. Bleeker, J. & van der Spoel, S. 1992. Catalogue of the Polychaeta collected by the Siboga Expedition and type specimens of Polychaeta in the Zoological Museum of Amsterdam. Bulletin Zoölogisch Museum Universiteit van Amsterdam. 13(13): 121-166. https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/505308 Day, J.H. & Hutchings, P.A. 1979. An annotated check-list of Australian and New Zealand Polychaeta, Archiannelida and Myzostomida. Records of the Australian Museum. 32: 80-161. https://journals.australian.museum/day-and-hutchings-1979-rec-aust-mus-323-80161/ Fiege, D. & Wehe, T. 2004. Type catalogue of the Annelida: Polychaeta in the collection of the Senckenberg-Museum in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Senckenbergiana biologica. 84: 27-43. Frank, P.G., Fournier, J.A. & Madill, J. 1985. type specimens of invertebrates (Mollusca and Arhtropoda excluded) in the National Museum of Natural Sciences, National Museums of Canada. Syllogeus. 60: 1-147. Grube, E. 1870. Bemerkungen über Anneliden des Parisier Museums. Archiv für Naturgeschichte, Berlin. 36: 281-352. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/7082164 Harada, E. 1991. Inventory of zoological type specimens in the museum of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory. Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory. 35: 171-233. https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2433/176171 Hartman, O. 1938a. Annotated list of the types of polychaetous annelids in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard. 85: 1-31, Pls 1-3. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/26232 Hartman, O. 1938b. The types of the polychaete worms of the families Polynoidae and Polyodontidae in the United States National Museum and the description of a new genus. Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 86: 107134. https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/16278 Hartman, O. 1942a. A review of the types of polychaetous annelids at the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Peabody Museum of Natural History. 8: 1-98. Hartman, O. 1942b. The identity of some marine annelid worms in the United States National Museum. Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 92: 101-140. https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/16390 Hartman, O. 1948. The marine annelids erected by Kinberg with notes on some other types in the Swedish State Museum. Arkiv för Zoologi. 42A: 1-137, Pls 1-18. Hartman, O. 1956. Polychaetous annelids erected by Treadwell, 1891 to 1948, together with a brief chronology. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 109(2): 239-310, Pl. 21. https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/1145?show=full 32 Hartwich, G. 1993. Die Polychaeten-Typen des Zoologischen Museums in Berlin. Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum, Berlin. 69: 73-154. https://doi. org/10.1002/mmnz.19930690106 Loi, T. 1980. Catalogue of the types of polychaete species erected by J. Percy Moore. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 132: 121-149. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4064752 Nishi, E. & Tanaka, K. s/a. Catalogue of invertebrate collection deposited in the Department of Zoology, the University Museum, the University of Tokyo: A catalogue of Akira Izura’s type and non-type polychaete collection in the University Museum, the University of Tokyo. Mimeo, 57 pp. http://umdb. um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/DDoubutu/invertebrate_en/polychaeta/index.html Oug, E., Bakken, T. & Kongsrud, A. 2014. Original specimens and type localities of the early described polychaete species (Annelida) from Norway, with particular attention to species described by O.F. Müller and M. Sars. Memoirs of Museum Victoria. 71: 217-236. https://museumsvictoria.com.au/collections-research/ journals/memoirs-of-museum-victoria/volume-71-2014/pages-217-236/ Pettibone, M.H. 1967. Type-specimens of polychaetes described by Edith and Cyril Berkeley (1923-1964). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 119(3553): 1-23. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/7760692 Salazar-Vallejo, S.I., Carrera-Parra, L.F, Muir, a., de León-González, J.A., Piotrowski, C. & Sato, M. 2014. Polychaete species (Annelida) described from the Philippine and China Seas. Zootaxa. 3842: 1-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/ zootaxa.3842.1.1 Salazar-Vallejo, S.I. & Eibye-Jacobsen, D. 2012. Annulata örstediana: publication dates, composition and annotated taxonomic list, with some comments on Hemipodus (Polychaeta: Glyceridae). Revista de Biología Tropical. 60: 1391-1402. https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-77442012000300035 San Martín, g. & Viéitez, J.M. 1991. Catálogo de los anélidos poliquetos del Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales de Madrid. Boletín de la Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural, sección Biología. 87: 93-131. Sánchez-Almazán, J., Sánchez-Chillón, B., Álvarez-Campos, P., Payo-Payo, A., Yagüe-Sánchez, F. & Calvo-Revuelta, M. 2015. Los “ejemplares tipo” de la colección de poliquetos del Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Monografías, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid. 26: 1-125. Solís-Weiss, V., Bertrand, Y., Helléouet, M.-N. & Pleijel, F. 2004. Types of polychaetous annelids at the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. Zoosystema. 26: 377384. https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/en/periodiques/zoosystema/26/3/les-types-dannelides-polychetes-du-museum-national-d-histoire-naturelle-paris Stasek, C.R. 1966. Type specimens in the California Academy of Sciences, Department of Invertebrate Zoology. California Academy of Sciences, Occasional Papers. 51: 1-38. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/22422#page/7/ mode/1up Tablado, A. & Venerus, L.A. 2000. Catálogo de ejemplares tipo de la División Invertebrados del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, 1. Porifiera, Cnidaria, Mesozoa, Platyhelminthes, Nemertinea, Rotifera, Nematomorpha, Nematoda, Bryozoa, Annelida, Crustacea y Echinodermata. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, nueva serie. 2: 203-236. http://revista.macn.gob.ar/ojs/ index.php/RevMus/article/view/156 Wallin, L. 1996. Catalogue of type specimens, 2. General Zoology. Uppsala University, Museum of Evolution, Zoology Section, 75 pp. https://www.google.com/ url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjKgtbqgb36AhVoL0QIHRzBBkwQFnoECA4QAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se%2Fsamling%2FUUZM02_GeneralZoology.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0UmFuOc3iFyQH5iHakVF-B Wallin, L. 2001. Catalogue of type specimens, 4. Linnean specimens. Uppsala University, Museum of Evolution, Zoology Section, 128 pp (poliquetos en pp 121-122). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjkyM_wk9L6AhX_QzABHbTAAAEQFnoECAsQAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se%2Fsamling%2FUUZM04_Linnaeus.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2tRtumnq2e0BoPexEiMWDm Wiktor, J. 1980. Type-specimens of Annelida Polychaeta in the Museum of Natural History of the Wroclaw University. Annales Zoologici. 35(20): 1-17 (267-283). Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �LOS METABOLITOS SECUNDARIOS COMO AGENTES ANTIMICROBIANOS �Laiju    Kuzhuppillymyal-Prabhakarankutty1, Adrián Martínez-Meléndez2, Flora Cruz-López2* Resumen Abstract Los agentes antimicrobianos son de suma importancia debido a su uso en el tratamiento contra agentes infecciosos. Muchos de los agentes antimicrobianos conocidos y nuevas moléculas recién descubiertas son metabolitos secundarios de microrganismos bacterianos y fúngicos, así como de diversas plantas. Los metabolitos secundarios son compuestos producidos por un microorganismo o una planta y no son requeridos para su desarrollo, crecimiento, o reproducción. Estos compuestos son sometidos a investigación con la finalidad de utilizarse clínicamente tras demostrar su eficacia y seguridad, lo que brinda la oportunidad de ampliar las opciones terapéuticas disponibles hoy en día. Sin embargo, tenemos una carrera a contrarreloj entre el desarrollo de nuevos agentes antimicrobianos y el surgimiento de microorganismos farmacorresistentes. En este artículo de divulgación, damos a conocer algunos de los metabolitos secundarios empleados cotidianamente como agentes antimicrobianos y su origen, así como nuevas moléculas bajo estudio con potencial uso terapéutico. Antimicrobial agents are important due they to their use in the treatment against infectious agents. A lot of the known antimicrobial agents and newly discovered new molecules are secondary metabolites of bacterial and fungal microorganisms, as well as various plants. Secondary metabolites are compounds produced by an organism or a plant that are not required for its development, growth or reproduction. These compounds are undergoing investigation with the aim of being used clinically after demonstrating their efficacy and safety. This provides the opportunity to expand the therapeutic options available. However, we have a race against time between the development of new antimicrobial agents and the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms. In this article, we talk about some of the secondary metabolites used daily as antimicrobial agents and their origin, as well as new molecules under study with potential therapeutic use. Palabras clave: Antimicrobianos, Farmacorresistencia, Metabolitos secundarios. Key words: Antimicrobials, Drug resistance, Secondary metabolites. ¹Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Educación Bilingüe, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Campus Mederos, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México 2 Subdirección Académica de Químico Farmacéutico Biólogo, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Pedro de Alba S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, CP 66450, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México. *Correspondencia: Flora Cruz-López (culf107168@uanl.edu.mx, flora.cruz@live.com) 33 �Introducción L os agentes antimicrobianos se definen como sustancias con capacidad de eliminar o inhibir el crecimiento de diversos microorganismos y pueden ser de origen natural o sintéticas (BurnettBoothroydyMcCarthy 2011). Los agentes antimicrobianos se han usado a lo largo del tiempo para combatir procesos infecciosos; sin embargo, en los últimos tiempos se ha detectado resistencia a las diferentes clases de antibióticos de uso clínico (Purssell 2020). La resistencia implica que los tratamientos actuales sean ineficaces y que las opciones terapéuticas disponibles para estas infecciones se reduzcan considerablemente (Purssell 2020). El uso excesivo de los agentes antimicrobianos en el cuidado de salud y la agricultura, junto con el desecho inadecuado de estos, han llevado a un aumento sustancial de la farmacorresistencia. (M. Miethke et al., 2021). Por lo anterior, la resistencia a los antimicrobianos es un problema de salud pública asociado a altas tasas de mortalidad a nivel mundial (Murray et al. 2022). Durante el año 2019, 1.27 millones de muertes fueron atribuidas a infecciones por bacterias resistentes a al menos un agente antimicrobiano (Murray et al. 2022); además, modelos estadísticos predicen una mortalidad de 10 millones de personas por año para el 2050 si no se toman acciones urgentes al respecto (Price 2016). Entre las medidas para combatir la farmacorresistencia se encuentra la búsqueda de nuevos compuestos para la obtención de nuevos agentes antimicrobianos, ya sea, de origen sintético o a partir de productos naturales. A lo largo de la historia, se ha reportado el uso de metabolitos secundarios de diversos organismos como fuente de compuestos con actividad antimicrobiana (Hutchings et al. 2019). Nos referimos a metabolitos secundarios como aquellos compuestos producidos por un organismo (como plantas, bacterias u hongos), los cuales no son requeridos para su desarrollo, crecimiento, o reproducción (Ruiz et al. 2010). 34 Cientos de metabolitos secundarios con actividad antimicrobiana han sido aislados y caracterizados a partir de cultivos in vitro (tanto de microorganismos como de plantas) en los laboratorios de investigación. Muchos de los antibióticos empleados actualmente en el área clínica son metabolitos secundarios (Hutchings et al. 2019). Aproximadamente, 40,000 agentes antimicrobianos han derivado de microorganismos, y hasta 25,000 han sido obtenidos a partir de plantas. Así mismo, se calcula que se han desarrollado hasta 100,000 compuestos semisintéticos y sintéticos. Sin embargo, el proceso de obtención de un nuevo agente antimicrobiano es lento, ya que comprende su identificación, purificación, análisis in vitro e in vivo de sus propiedades biológicas y farmacológicas, y su validación en ensayos clínicos. (Alibi et al. 2021). Pese a las cifras de compuestos anteriormente mencionadas, solo pocas opciones se utilizan en el tratamiento contra microorganismos infecciosos. Esto último es debido a que durante las fases de ensayos clínicos se demuestra que no todos los compuestos son potencialmente activos, presentan elevada toxicidad, o su actividad in vivo no es la esperada a lo observado en ensayos in vitro (Miethke et al. 2021, Pancu et al. 2021). Actualmente, entre 30 y 40 compuestos (derivados de agentes existentes) con actividad antimicrobiana se encuentran en alguna fase de ensayo clínico por su potencial actividad ante patógenos considerados como prioritarios por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS); sin embargo, menos del 25% de ellos representa un clase nueva o actúan a través de un mecanismo novedoso, así como ninguno de ellos es potencialmente activo (Miethke et al. 2021). Por esta razón, se requiere urgentemente una inversión estratégica en la investigación de nuevas opciones terapéuticas, derivadas de plantas u otros microorganismos, para combatir la resistencia a los Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �En este trabajo, se enlistan algunos ejemplos de los agentes antimicrobianos obtenidos a partir de microorganismos, así como ejemplos de otros metabolitos secundarios con potencial actividad antimicrobiana que se encuentran aún bajo estudios de caracterización obtenidos a partir de plantas. Esto demuestra la importancia de los metabolitos secundarios como fuente alternativa en la obtención de compuestos potencialmente útiles para el tratamiento de infecciones por patógenos farmacorresistentes. El primer metabolito secundario empleado como agente antimicrobiano El descubrimiento de la penicilina en 1928 dio comienzo a una era de descubrimiento de nuevos antibióticos a partir de productos naturales. El efecto de la penicilina fue observado por el médico inglés Alexander Fleming en cultivos de Staphylococcus spp. contaminados con un hongo denominado Penicillium chrysogenum. En los cultivos contaminados con este hongo se observó la inhibición en el crecimiento de las colonias de Staphylococcus debido a la capacidad del hongo para producir una sustancia con actividad antimicrobiana, la cual se difundía a través del medio de cultivo (Fleming 1929). A pesar de la actividad bactericida de este compuesto, su uso en el área clínica se dio a partir de 1943, tras su purificación y la caracterización de su estructura (Hodgkin 1949, Abraham et al. 1992). El uso de la penicilina como tratamiento de infecciones bacterianas coincidió con el desarrollo y el uso excesivo de otros compuestos con actividad antimicrobiana de origen natural en un periodo a corto plazo (1940-1960), por lo que la búsqueda de otros agentes antimicrobianos disminuyó considerablemente y los casos de farmacorresistencia surgieron, iniciando una crisis que se mantiene actualmente por las escasas alternativas terapéuticas disponibles (Hutchings et al. 2019). Para contrarrestar lo anterior, una estrategia implementada fue la obtención de derivados semisintéticos a partir de la penicilina; sin embargo, los microorganismos pronto desarrollaron mecanismos de resistencia a estas moléculas. El poco éxito en la obtención de nuevos compuestos sintéticos que sean efectivos conlleva a la búsqueda de metabolitos Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 secundarios con actividad bactericida, con una estructura diferente a los agentes antimicrobianos ya conocidos (Hutchings et al. 2019). Agentes antimicrobianos de origen microbiano actualmente empleamos en la clínica Como se mencionó previamente, el desarrollo de otros compuestos con actividad antimicrobiana a partir de metabolitos secundarios se dio entre 1940 y 1960. Uno de los científicos con mayor aportación en este campo fue el bioquímico estadounidense Selman Waksman a partir de cultivos del género Streptomyces (Waksman et al. 2010). Aproximadamente el 55% de los agentes antimicrobianos desarrollados entre 1945 y 1978 fueron obtenidos de Streptomyces (Hutchings et al. 2019), entre estos se encuentran cloranfenicol, daptomicina, neomicina, estreptomicina, tetraciclina, entre otros, los cuales comparten un mecanismo de acción similar al inhibir el proceso de síntesis de proteínas en bacterias (Tabla 1). La eritromicina y la vancomicina son agentes antimicrobianos derivados de este mismo género; sin embargo, los microorganismos que los producen han sido reclasificados con el paso del tiempo (Alvarez MartínezyGarcía del Pozo 2002, Xu et al. 2014). Otra contribución importante fue la del científico de origen italiano Giuseppe Brotzu, quien aisló diversos metabolitos a partir del hongo Cephalosporium acremonium, cuya actividad se centra en inhibir la síntesis de la pared celular de bacterias Gram positivas. Estos metabolitos dieron origen a las cefalosporinas; todas ellas tienen en común un grupo denominado ácido 7-aminocefalosporánico, al cual se le han añadido otros grupos funcionales, por lo que se han podido desarrollar hasta el momento cinco generaciones (Nakajima 2003). La colistina es un ejemplo más de la actividad antimicrobiana de los metabolitos secundarios producidos por los microorganismos. La colistina es una polimixina aislada en 1947 por Koyama a partir de una cepa de Paenibacillus polymyxa subesp. colistinus (Hamel et al. 2021). Las polimixinas son polipéptidos catiónicos que son unen a la membrana externa de bacterias Gram negativas y que provocan lisis de la célula bacteriana (Gurjar 2015). Otros ejemplos son la gentamicina, un agente antimicrobiano de la clase de los aminoglicósidos derivado de Micromonospora purpurea descubierto en 1963 (Wei et al. 2019); y la mupirocina, una mezcla de ácidos pseudomónicos obtenidos a partir de Pseudomonas fluorescens en 1971 (Gao et al. 2014). Ambos actúan como inhibidores de la síntesis de proteínas en bacterias. La búsqueda de nuevos agentes antimicrobianos continúa Pareciera que la era dorada de los antibióticos ha terminado; lo anterior se debe a la aparición de bacterias resistentes a los antibióticos (Ayaz et al. 2019). Se han identificado alrededor de 20,000 genes asociados a resistencia en bacterias y se han 35 Los metabolitos secundarios como agentes antimicrobianos. agentes antimicrobianos y detener la diseminación de patógenos farmacorresistentes (AlSheikh et al. 2020). �descrito mecanismos para explicar la resistencia bacteriana a los agentes antimicrobianos tradicionales. Otros factores que contribuyen a la disminución de la eficacia de los antibióticos son: el aumento de pacientes inmunocomprometidos, el envejecimiento, el estrés, y las complicaciones de los trasplantes (Ayaz et al. 2019). Por lo tanto, es de relevancia cubrir la demanda en la búsqueda de nuevos agentes antimicrobianos efectivos para tratar esas enfermedades causadas por los microorganismos farmacorresistentes. Plantas como fuente de antimicrobianos Las plantas han sido una de las fuentes más valiosas de moléculas con valor terapéutico a lo largo de la historia de la humanidad. Gran parte de la medicina tradicional de cada civilización se basa en productos naturales; aún en la actualidad, las plantas medicinales todavía representan una fuente importante para la obtención de nuevos fármacos (Bittner et al. 2021). Se sabe que las plantas sintetizan una amplia gama de compuestos, como quinonas, taninos, terpenoides, alcaloides, flavonoides y polifenoles que tienen propiedades para contrarrestar diferentes enfermedades infecciosas (Bhatia et al. 2021). Por ejemplo, el ácido cinámico es un compuesto derivado de las plantas que muestra efecto contra bacterias Grampositivas y Gramnegativas, y las avenanramidas, derivadas de la planta Avena sativa, se utilizan en el tratamiento para procesos inflamatorios de la piel y en la curaciones de heridas (Bittner et al. 2021). Se ha observado la actividad antimicrobiana del compuesto cumarina de Melilotus albus, una hierba leguminosa, contra bacterias como Bacillus subtilis y S. aureus. Así mismo, el ácido salvianólico A, un metabolito aislado de muchas plantas de la familia Lamiaceae, muestra actividad contra S. aureus en ensayos in vitro (Bhatia et al. 2021, Bittner et al. 2021). Los flavonoides son metabolitos secundarios presente en todas las plantas verdes y juegan un papel clave en la protección de las plantas contra los patógenos. Los flavonoides presentan actividad bactericida e impiden la formación de biopelícula (un conjunto de células microbianas que se mantienen unidas entre sí gracias a una sustancia elabora por estos mismos microorganismos). Además, pueden actuar 36 sinérgicamente con los antibióticos convencionales para aumentar el efecto bactericida ante algunas bacterias. Los flavonoides interactúan con la membrana bacteriana, donde interrumpen las bicapas de fosfolípidos e inhiben la cadena respiratoria y la síntesis de ATP. Se ha reportado que los flavonoides derivados de las hojas de nuez son efectivos contra Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes y S. aureus resistente a la meticilina (Bittner et al. 2021). Otro ejemplo son los taninos, un metabolito secundario común de muchas plantas, se consideran una alternativa potencial a los antibióticos convencionales, debido a sus propiedades para secuestrar el hierro, inhibir la síntesis de la pared celular e interrumpir la continuidad de las membranas celulares. Además, pueden inhibir vías biosintéticas y evitar la formación de biopelícula en bacterias gramnegativas y grampositivas. Se ha encontrado que el té negro, que contiene acido tánico, puede reducir la colonización nasal y faríngea de S. aureus resistente meticilina y evita la formación de biopelícula (Bhatia et al. 2021, Bittner et al. 2021). Por otro lado, algunos aceites esenciales derivados de plantas han sido también centro de atención por la actividad antimicrobiana que presentan. Tal es el caso del aceite esencial de tomillo, empleado en ensayos contra Pseudomonas aeruginosa, donde se puede observar una disminución en la viabilidad del microorganismo y la inhibición en la formación de biopelícula (Haines et al. 2022). Los aceites esenciales de perejil, la albahaca y el tomillo causan un aumento en la permeabilidad celular, provocando el escape de los componentes celulares, alteraciones en la pared celular, la perdida de ATP en bacterias como B. cereus, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli y Salmonella entérica serovar Typhimurium (AlSheikh et al. 2020). El uso de productos químicos para controlar los patógenos esta limitado debido a su efecto carcinogénico, toxicidad y su potencial peligro al ambiente (Swamy et al. 2016). Por esta razón, los aceites esenciales pueden ser mejores agentes antimicrobianos debido a un menor número de efectos secundarios reportados, una mejor eficacia y por su actividad antimicrobiana contra patógenos. Así mismo, los microrganismos no pueden adquirir resistencia a los aceites esenciales debido a una gran variedad de componentes que los constituyen, además de que no inducen mutaciones en el material genético de los microorganismos (Mittal et al. 2019). Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �mortalidad elevada (Organization 2021). Hoy en día, la artemisinina, desarrollada a partir de Artemisia annua y sus derivados sintéticos se usa como tratamiento cuando hay resistencia a los fármacos anteriormente mencionados (Feng et al. 2020). Impacto de los agentes antimicrobianos Otros ejemplos son el jarabe preparado a base de extractos de Hedera hélix L, las cápsulas de Tavipec que contienen aceites de lavanda, y el jarabe Hustagil realizado a base de tomillo, los cuales son empleados como tratamiento en enfermedades respiratorias y actualmente son comercializados por diferentes laboratorios (Pranskuniene et al. 2022). como tratamiento en las enfermedades infecciosas a lo largo del tiempo. A lo largo de la historia se han registrado enfermedades infecciosas con elevada mortalidad. Existen enfermedades cuya mortalidad ha disminuido gracias al uso de tratamientos antimicrobianos, que además han permitido disminuir el número de casos, mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes e incluso erradicarlas conforme el uso de estos remedios. A continuación, mencionamos algunos ejemplos del impacto del uso de estos tratamientos en la mortalidad de algunas de las enfermedades más temidas en la humanidad. La peste negra fue la pandemia más mortífera registrada en la edad media (1347-1351), ocasionada por la bacteria Yesrinia pestis, la cual provoca afectaciones al sistema respiratorio y elevada mortalidad (casi 200 millones de personas fallecidas). Para ese período, uno de los remedios empleados como medicina preventiva fue “El vinagre de cuatro ladrones’’, elaborado con hierbas como Angelica archangelica, Cinnamomum camphora, Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Origanum majorana, Filipendula ulmaria, Artemisia absinthium y Salvia officinalis (Garcia 2020). A partir de la década de 1940, con el desarrollo de antibióticos tales como la estreptomicina, la gentamicina, fluroquinolonas, y el trimetroprim-sulfametoxazol, la tasa de mortalidad ha disminuido considerablemente; en ausencia de un tratamiento, la mortalidad va de un 30 a un 60% en la actualidad (Organization 2023, Salud 2023). Otro ejemplo que podemos mencionar es el de la malaria, una enfermedad infecciosa causada por Plasmodium spp. La transmisión se da mediante mosquitos, y se atribuyen hasta 300 millones de muertes durante el siglo pasado. El tratamiento más efectivo contra la malaria es la quinina, un alcaloide extraído de la corteza de Cinchona officinalis. A partir de la quinina, se han sintetizado otros compuestos con actividad contra estos parásitos: la cloroquina y la hidroxicloroquina (Garcia 2020). En la actualidad, los reportes entre 2019 y 2020 por esta enfermedad es de más de 620,000 muertes a nivel mundial, tras la afectación de los servicios de salud durante la pandemia por COVID-19. Aunado a esto, los casos de resistencia de Plasmodium a los tratamientos actuales contribuyen a una Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 Productos de origen vegetal con licencia farmacéutica Algunos de los tratamientos empleados en la medicina actual han sido extracciones de plantas, las cuales muestran efectividad contra diversos síntomas y se comercializan en diferentes regiones. Tal como se mencionó previamente, los tratamientos disponibles para la malaria, la cloroquina y la hidroxicloroquina, fueron sintetizados en 1934 y 1955, respectivamente, por los laboratorios Bayer, derivados de la quinina (Garcia 2020). El proceso a seguir antes de aprobar el uso de un compuesto con actividad antimicrobiana Nuevos compuestos con actividad antimicrobiana se pueden descubrir a partir de los metabolitos secundarias de plantas, bacterias y hongos, las cuales poseen características estructurales únicas como una mayor cantidad de átomos de oxígeno, centros quirales, alta complejidad estérica, y rigidez molecular, un mayor número de aceptores y donadores de enlaces de hidrogeno, entre otras (KoehnyCarter 2005). Los metabolitos secundarios de interés pueden ser compuestos biológicamente activos utilizados directamente como agentes terapéuticos, compuestos líderes para el desarrollo de análogos más potentes, compuestos cuya estructura puede proporcionar a convertir en nuevos fármacos, y compuestos químicos para usar como marcador para la estandarización del extracto crudo de las plantas (cuando son de origen vegetal) (KoehnyCarter 2005). El camino a recorrer desde la detección de la actividad antimicrobiana hasta la aplicación práctica de los compuestos activos es largo, y comprende la identificación, purificación, análisis in vitro e in vivo de sus propiedades biológicas y farmacológicas, y sus validación en ensayos clínicos (Alibi et al. 2021). Después de la identificación y validación del objetivo, se desarrollan ensayos de alto rendimiento y se comparan con bibliotecas de compuestos para generar el compuesto que demuestra la actividad deseada de interacción con el objetivo de interés. Cada serie exitosa se somete a evaluaciones adicionales, e incluso a modificaciones químicas para convertirse en compuestos más aptos para fármacos antes de realizar pruebas farmacocinéticas in vitro e in vivo. Así mismo, las tasas de éxito de los medicamentos que ingresan a los 37 Los metabolitos secundarios como agentes antimicrobianos. El ácido carnósico y el carnosol son diterpenoides, otros metabolitos secundarios de la Salvia que han demostrado actividad contra S. aureus (Pavic et al. 2019). Además, las saponinas, metabolitos secundarios de diversas plantas, presentan actividad antimicrobiana contra cepas de enterococos resistentes a la vancomicina (Schmidt et al. 2014). Los carotenoides y los tetraterpenos, presentes en Caléndula oficinales L., son altamente efectivos contra S. aureus y B. subtilis (Efstratiou et al. 2012). Los alcaloides son otro ejemplo de metabolitos, derivados de las partes aéreas del Solanum dulcamara L., presentan actividad contra Streptococcus pyogenes, S. epidermis y S. aureus (TurkeryUsta 2008). Además, comprender el modo de acción y concentraciones de estos compuestos a las cuales se inhibe el crecimiento de un patógeno es crucial para desarrollar nuevos tratamientos. �ensayos clínicos de Fase 1 tienen aproximadamente un 10% de posibilidad de obtener la aprobación de la FDA (Boyd et al. 2021). Solo una pequeña proporción de estos tienen utilidad clínica, principalmente por la elevada toxicidad asociada. Los agentes antimicrobianos deben poseer toxicidad selectiva, es decir, deben presentar actividad eficaz contra los agentes causales de infecciones y a la vez presentar mínima toxicidad en humanos. Por lo anterior, es claro que cada compuesto identificado no está listo para ser utilizado de manera inmediata en la práctica clínica habitual. Se requieren antimicrobianos con concentraciones inhibitorias lo suficientemente bajas, toxicidad mínima y biodisponibilidad fácil para un uso eficiente y seguro en humanos (Gorlenko et al. 2020). Discusión El camino a recorrer desde la detección de la actividad antimicrobiana hasta la aplicación práctica de los compuestos activos es largo, y comprende la identificación, purificación, análisis in vitro e in vivo de sus propiedades biológicas y farmacológicas, y sus validación en ensayos clínicos (Alibi et al. 2021). Para un nuevo compuesto con potencial actividad antimicrobiana, el camino desde el descubrimiento inicial hasta el lanzamiento al mercado es lento, costoso, y lleno de una multitud de barreras. Llevar un agente antimicrobiano desde las fases preclínicas al mercado generalmente requiere un plazo mínimo de 1012 años y más de $2 mil millones en recursos. Además, la probabilidad de éxito es baja, con solo uno o dos medicamentos de los 10,000 compuestos iniciales que alcanzan la aprobación de la Administración Federal de Drogas (FDA). Las tasas de éxito de los medicamentos que ingresan a los ensayos clínicos de Fase 1 tienen aproximadamente un 10% de posibilidad de obtener la aprobación de la FDA (Boyd et al. 2021), por lo que es importante mantener una fuente constante de investigación en moléculas con actividad antimicrobiana. A pesar de contar con numerosos compuestos para su investigación, principalmente de origen vegetal en los últimos años, los agentes antimicrobianos deben poseer toxicidad selectiva, es decir, deben presentar actividad eficaz contra los agentes causales de infecciones y a la vez presentar mínima toxicidad en humanos, lo que dificulta alcanzar el objetivo final (Gorlenko et al. 2020). Como mencionamos previamente, los aceites esenciales, obtenidos como extractos de plantas, pueden ser una fuente adicional en la obtención de sustancias con actividad antimicrobiana. Los aceites esenciales se caracterizan por ser volátiles, intensamente aromáticos, insolubles en agua y se oxidan fácilmente al ser expuestos al aire. Dependiendo del origen de dicho aceite, se pueden encontrar hasta 300 compuestos químicos, los cuales varían según la zona de la cual se obtienen, lo que puede dificultar su caracterización completa. Con frecuencia, los microorganismos se ven implicados en procesos infecciosos o en el deterioro de la salud. Sin embargo, en algunas ocasiones los propios microorganismos proporcionan nuevos agentes antimicrobianos que, posteriormente a largas etapas de investigación y desarrollo, pueden utilizarse clínicamente siempre y cuando se demuestre su eficacia y seguridad. Además, es de suma importancia la investigación y desarrollo de nuevos antimicrobianos debido al surgimiento de microorganismos resistentes a los tratamientos actuales. La demanda de los metabolitos secundarios producidos en plantas y microorganismos será cada vez mayor. Sin embargo, es necesario optimizar la producción por medio de diferentes ténicas, lo cual permitirá una reducción en el tiempo y costos. La ingeniería metabólica parece ser una estrategia adecuada, a través del conocimiento de rutas metabólicas y de los genes involucrados en la síntesis de los metabolitos secundarios ampliará el espectro de sustancias que pueden ser potenciales candidatos para el desarrollo de nuevos fármacos. (KoehnyCarter 2005, Boyd et al. 2021) Agradecimientos Los autores agradecen a Kellie Grimaldo Norato y a Jacob Romero Chávez por su apoyo técnico. Tabla 1. Agentes antimicrobianos de origen microbiano Agente antimicrobiano Microorganismo que lo produce Sitio de acción Ref. Cefalosporinas Cephalosporium acremonium Inhibidores de la síntesis de pared celular (Nakajima 2003) Cloranfenicol Streptomyces venezuelae Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Colistina Paenibacillus polymyxa Lisis de la membrana celular (Hamel et al. 2021) Daptomicina Streptomyces roseosporus Lisis de la membrana celular (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Eritromicina Saccharopolyspora erythraea (antes Streptomyces erithrea) Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (Alvarez MartínezyGarcía del Pozo 2002) Estreptomicina Streptomyces griseus Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Gentamicina Micromonospora purpurea Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (Wei et al. 2019) Mupirocina Pseudomonas fluorescens Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (Khoshnood et al. 2019) Neomicina Streptomyces fradiae Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Penicilina Penicillium chrysogenum Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (Fleming 1929) Rifampicina Streptomyces mediterranei Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Tetraciclina Streptomyces aureofaciens Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012) Vancomicina Amycolatopsis orientalis Inhibidor de las síntesis de proteínas (de Lima Procópio et al. 2012, Xu et al. 2014) 38 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Literatura citada Abraham, E. 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DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-363. �LOS CHINICUILES O GUSANOS ROJOS DEL MAGUEY: Alimento de origen prehispánico amenazado por su sobreexplotación �Mario    Adolfo García Montes1, Carmen Julia Figueredo-Urbina2*, Roberto Bucio Peña3, Armando Leopoldo Leonel Cruz4 Laboratorio de Genética, Área Académica de Biología, Instituto de Ciencias Básicas e Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo. Ciudad del Conocimiento, Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo km 4.5, Col. Carboneras, C.P. 42184, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, México. e-mail: ga238881@uaeh.edu.mx. ORCID: 0000-0001-5236-7160. 2 Investigadora por México CONACYT, Instituto de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo. Rancho Universitario, Av. Universidad Km. 1, Ex Hacienda de Aquetzalpa AP 32, C.P. 43600, Tulancingo, Hidalgo, México. e-mail: figueredocj@gmail.com ORCID: 0000-00030906-8821. 3 Chef independiente de cocina mexicana tradicional, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, México. e-mail: chef_buccio@hotmail.com ORCID: 0000-00031778-3905 4 Biomatvi Laboratorio, Zapotlán de Juárez, Hidalgo, México. e-mail: lab.biomatvi@gmail.com ORCID: 0000-0003-3285-3262 1 41 �Resumen Introducción Los chinicuiles son insectos comestibles que han formado parte importante en la dieta y economía de los pueblos de México. Corresponden a una larva de polilla nocturna perteneciente a la especie Comadia redtenbacheri Hammerschmidt y, forman parte de los insectos barrenadores, en este caso de maguey. Los chinicuiles se posicionan en el mercado culinario de platillos exóticos, se consumen en diversas preparaciones como en las salsas, en tacos y fritos en mantequilla. Viven en dos tipos de magueyes, los silvestres llamados cimarrones o blancos de la especie Agave applanata Hort. ex. K. Koch y la especie cultivada y también silvestre de agave pulquero Agave salmiana Otto ex. Salm-Dyck. Se comercializa en los mercados tradicionales y tianguis. Mediante análisis demográficos, de perturbación y genéticos, documentamos una posible disminución en las poblaciones de estas plantas, y sugiere una relación entre su aprovechamiento y la afectación poblacional de los agaves. Los Gusanos rojos o chinicuiles Palabras clave: insectos comestibles, agave, cultura gastronómica, conservación. 42 C riaturas de movimientos sinuosos, aroma particular, colorados y de aspecto de “gusanos” u orugas, los chinicuiles o gusanos rojos del maguey, han sido un recurso alimentario apreciado por diversas culturas de México. En realidad, los chinicuiles son una larva de un tipo de mariposa nocturnas o polilla que pertenecen a la familia Cossidae, una de las cuatro familias de barrenadores de madera, que en este caso barrenan los magueyes (RamosElorduy et al., 2006). Los chinicuiles reciben diferentes nombres, dependiendo de la región del país, los más comunes son: gusanos rojos de maguey, gusanos colorados, techoles, chilincual, michicuil, chilocuil o chinicuiles (Muñoz, 2012), entre otros nombres en idiomas de pueblos originarios. Estos insectos han sido utilizados desde épocas prehispánicas, evidencia de este hecho es que Fray Bernandino de Sahagún en su obra literaria Historia General de las cosas de Nueva España, menciona: “Hay algunos gusanos que se crían a las raíces de los magueyes. Llámense chichilocuili. Son colorados. Ni son buenos ni malos”. “Otros gusanos comestibles son los del maguey: meocuili o blancos y chichilocuili o colorados.” (Sahagún, 2019). El nombre de chinicuil proviene de la palabra náhuatl chilocuilin, que se compone de chichitlic que significa colorado y oculin que es gusano, el cual se traduce como gusano colorado o gusano de chile, esto debido al color rojo que presentan (LlanderalCázares et al., 2017). Desde el punto de vista zoológico, los chinicuiles son en realidad una larva que presenta la forma típica que asociamos con gusanos, y pertenecen a la etapa larvaria dentro de la metamorfosis o transformación de la polilla nocturna Comadia redtenbacheri Hammerschmidt. De acuerdo con la literatura, estas larvas pueden alcanzar hasta cinco centímetros de largo, con la superficie de su cuerpo libre de vellosidades a diferencia de otras larvas (que a veces las venden como chinicuiles). Además, cuentan con una especie de “cuernito” en el último segmento de su cuerpo. La vida de las polillas que dan origen a los chinicuiles es relativamente corta, entre tres a cinco días, y de acuerdo con ciertos aspectos morfológicos de su desarrollo, estas no comen cuando son adultos (Llanderal-Cázares et al., 2017), por lo que su propósito principal es reproducirse, y revolotea entre los magueyes o agaves hasta lograrlo (Fig. 1A). Llegado el momento, los huevecillos son puestos en la base de las hojas o pencas de los magueyes (Fig. 1B). Una vez que emergen las larvas (Fig. 1C), éstas hacen una pequeña perforación y se alimentan de los tejidos de la planta, particularmente de las raíces y el tallo, el cual horada hasta alcanzar el interior, en donde se hospeda hasta terminar su ciclo larval con una duración de ocho meses (Fig. 1D), para posteriormente hacer su pupa o capullo y crisálida y nuevamente emerger como adulto (Fig.1E y F). Durante la estación lluviosa, es común encontrar chinicuiles en las raíces y la base de los magueyes, pues migran de las pencas de donde nacieron en busca de alimento; es el momento idóneo para su colecta. Trascurrido un año desde la puesta del huevo, el chinicuil completa su transformación o metamorfosis, se convierte en una polilla de hábitos nocturnos, con un cuerpo grueso y de coloración parda. Las polillas hembras pueden llegar a ovopositar 50 o más huevecillos, una vez Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �que los deposita, muere (Hernández-Livera et al., 2005, Llanderal-Cázares et al., 2017). ¿Dónde podemos encontrar a los chinicuiles? Debido a todo esto, el principal objetivo que aquí se plantea es dar a conocer la situación actual de este ingrediente tradicional de la cocina mexicana, así como el uso que se les da y cómo este manejo pudiera estar afectando a las poblaciones naturales tanto de la polilla como de los magueyes. Además, se incluye una breve receta culinaria para preparar una deliciosa salsa verde con chinicuiles, ¡Que lo disfrutes! Esta especie de polilla nocturna es nativa de Norte América y se encuentra principalmente en zonas áridas y semiáridas. En el estado de Hidalgo, podemos encontrar a los chinicuiles viviendo en los magueyes pulqueros que son cultivados en diversos sistemas productivos en la región (Ramírez et al., 2017; ÁlvarezRíos et al., 2020). Estos magueyes pertenecen principalmente a la especie Agave salmiana (Fig. 2A y B), pero también a una especie de maguey cimarrón o silvestre conocido como blanco, de castilla, de ixtle, de la casa o socolume, o en ingles Cream Spike Agave, el cual se conoce botánicamente como Agave applanata (Fig. 2C y D) (CONABIO, 2019; García Mendoza, 2007). Ambas especies son mexicanas y representan un recurso importante, tanto económica como culturalmente, debido a los múltiples usos que se le han dado a estas y otras especies desde hace más de 9,000 años (Colunga-GarcíaMarín et al., 2017). Para disfrutar de unos deliciosos chinicuiles, se comienza con la elección del maguey que potencialmente podría contener a estas larvas (Fig. 3-1). De acuerdo con lo que comentan algunos recolectores, campesinos y gente de los pueblos, cuando un maguey tiene chinicuiles, las pencas lucen de un color amarillento a rojizo, y al desenterrarlo y buscar en las raíces, allí estarán los chinicuiles, de distintos tamaños y tonos de rojo. Una de las etapas ideales para recolectar a estas larvas es cuando miden no más de dos centímetros de largo, tienen un color durazno y un olor no tan fuerte. A partir de la mitad de agosto, los chinicuiles aumentan de tamaño, se intensifica el color a un rojo intenso y el aroma es tan potente que los recolectores mencionan que, gracias a esto, es muy fácil localizar el maguey que contiene a los chinicuiles. En caso de tener chinicuiles, el maguey es primero inclinado y luego extraído completamente del suelo (Fig.3-2), así las raíces quedan expuestas para que después, con ayuda de un machete o barreta se va deshojando cuidadosamente para ir sacando las larvas. A veces con ayuda de una púa del mismo maguey se van agarrando cada uno de los chinicuiles y se colocan en un recipiente. Figura 2. Especies de agaves del estado de Hidalgo donde se ha documentado la presencia de chinicuiles (Comadia redtenbacheri). A) El maguey pulquero de la especie Agave salmiana en área naturales, B) Individuos de Agave salmiana afectados por el aprovechamiento de los chinicuiles en áreas naturales, C) El maguey cimarrón o blanco de la especie Agave applanata en áreas naturales. D) Individuos de Agave applanata afectados por el aprovechamiento del chinicuil. (Fotos C.J. Figueredo U). Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 43 Los chinicuiles o gusanos rojos del maguey: alimento de origen prehispánico amenazado por su sobreexplotación. Figura 1. Esquema de las fases de un chinicuil (Comadia redtenbacheri) durante su ciclo de vida Fotos BIOMATVI. �En el caso de los magueyes pulqueros en los cultivos, una buena práctica común es que al finalizar la recolecta de los chinicuiles de una planta en particular, a ésta se le realiza la limpieza de su base y el maguey se vuelve a colocar en el lugar de donde se extrajo, para que así pueda continuar creciendo (Fig. 3, ver recuadro rojo). Algunos productores de maguey pulquero mencionan que, al iniciar las lluvias intensas, los chinicuiles salen por su cuenta de las raíces y se pueden colectar sin dañar al maguey. En el caso de magueyes “cimarrones”, es decir aquellos que crecen solos en los cerros, esta buena práctica de resembrar no parece ser común, de hecho, los magueyes son desenterrados, se colectan los chinicuiles y simplemente se dejan allí y luego se encuentran “cadáveres”, como es el caso del maguey cimarrón o maguey blanco (A. applanata) (Fig. 2 B y C; Fig. 3, ver recuadro en rojo). Este hecho es debido a que los chinicuiles son ampliamente comercializados y este tipo de práctica la llevan a cabo principalmente personas que se aprovechan del recurso, sin la conciencia de preservar y conservarlo para el futuro. Debido a esto, se necesita una regulación tomando en cuenta la situación socioeconómica y necesidades de los sitios en los que se llevan a cabo estas prácticas de manejo (Piojan, 2001, Ramos-Elorduy et. al., 2006). Una vez que ya se colectan los chinicuiles, éstos ya están listos para prepararse ya sea asados, fritos, en una salsa de molcajete o pueden acompañar diversos platillos. Es muy común que los chinicuiles se vendan vivos en los mercados locales (Fig. 4A y B) o en las principales carreteras de Hidalgo, generalmente por docenas, a un precio de unos $20.00 a $30.00 pesos mexicanos o incluso se llegan a vender por litro (los insectos son colocados en envases que contienen esa cantidad de líquido y es la unidad de venta), llegando a costar hasta $2,000.00 pesos mexicanos el litro. En algunos casos los vendedores los congelan para tener disponibilidad durante todo el año, otros lo tuestan o fríen (Fig. 4B), lo cual permite que se preserven por más tiempo. De esta manera se pueden preparar diversos derivados para su posterior comercialización, entre ellos la popular sal de chinicuil (Fig. 4 E y F). “Todo lo que se arrastra, corre y vuela, va a la cazuela” Si hacemos un recorrido por la historia gastronómica de México vamos a encontrar una amplia diversidad Figura 3: Aprovechamiento de los chinicuiles o Gusanos rojo del maguey. 1) La recolección de este insecto puede ser a partir de los agaves pulqueros, generalmente cultivados, pero también de los agaves blancos o cimarrones. 2) En el caso de la recolección de los agaves pulqueros, estos se vuelven a sembrar luego de extraer los chinicuiles, para el caso de los agaves blancos la planta es removida completamente del suelo para poder extraer los chinicuiles, posteriormente son dejados allí, conllevando a que mueran. 3) En la actualidad existe una elevada demanda de estos recursos en los mercados, llegando a costar hasta 2,000 pesos el litro de chinicuil dorado cuando se está fuera de temporada, es probable que exista sobreexplotación. 4) Es un recurso con importancia cultural, donde además existe toda una cultura gastronómica que da identidad algunas regiones como es el caso de los Llanos de Apan y el Valle del Mezquital. (Elaboración C. J. Figueredo-Urbina). 44 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �de recursos que han sido utilizados por los pueblos originarios, muchos de ellos aún siguen vigentes. La creciente popularidad de las recetas con insectos ha traído a nuestra mesa platillos de la comida tradicional mexicana que hoy no solo brillan por su creatividad y valor cultural, sino también por su valor nutricional. Desde el punto de vista nutricional, los chinicuiles al igual que otros insectos comestibles en estado larval contienen sales minerales y son fuente importante de magnesio y calcio. Además, pueden proporcionar calorías de calidad. Por ejemplo, 100 gramos de chinicuiles pueden contener entre 6 a 18% más proteína comparada con la misma cantidad de carne de res, además son altamente digeribles (Chapa, 2013). El alto valor nutritivo de los chinicuiles puede ir acompañado de otros ingredientes, que, combinándolos da como resultado una verdadera joya gastronómica nutritiva. El caso de la receta de tacos con salsa de chinicuiles, representan una tradición en diferentes regiones de México (altiplano Hidalguense y mexiquense y valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán) que aún se mantiene, y que se ha popularizado, encontrando así un espacio en los amantes de la entomofagia (González y Contreras, 2009). Debido a que los chinicuiles los encontramos asociados a los magueyes y entre ellos los pulqueros, es común emplear la bebida de los dioses para preparar la salsa, de hecho, se han convertido en una receta que forma parte de la cultura gastronómica en torno a los magueyes y el pulque (Fig. 5). Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 ¿Cómo preparar una rica salsa de chinicuiles? En la actualidad aun es común que, en distintas localidades de la región del Valle de Mezquital, el Valle de Tulancingo, la Comarca Minera, los Llanos de Apan, entre otros, la salsa de chinicuiles sea un platillo acostumbrando en temporada. Generalmente se usan los que se colectan en el monte, en los metepantles o sembradíos de magueyes o bien aquellos que se compran a particulares, en los mercados o en diferentes carreteras en el estado de Hidalgo. Figura 5: Salsas verdes con chinicuil. A) Salsa verde en molcajete de piedra volcánica con pulque, B) Salsa verde con chinicuiles que tradicionalmente acompañan la Sopa de Malvas, platillo de temporada de Singuilucán, Hidalgo (Fotos: CJ Figueredo). 45 Los chinicuiles o gusanos rojos del maguey: alimento de origen prehispánico amenazado por su sobreexplotación. Figura 4: Los chinicuiles son principalmente comercializados en mercados tradicionales, locales o tianguis y algunos productos ya procesados se comercializan en supermercados como Walmart. A) Chinicuiles vivos comercializados en el Mercado 1ro de mayo en Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo. B) Chinicuiles tostados o fritos que se venden en el Mercado 1ro de mayo en Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo, C) Detalle de un chinicuil de cerca de unos cuatro centímetros de largo, E y F) Sal de chinicuil procesada y envasada que se comercializa actualmente en supermercados. �Lo que necesitamos para una deliciosa salsa son unos 100 gramos de chinicuiles de preferencia frescos, unos cuatro jitomates o tomates guaje, dos chiles serranos, un cuarto de cebolla blanca y dos dientes de ajos, unas ramas de cilantro fresco y sal de grano para sazonar. Para iniciar con la preparación debemos lavar y desinfectar el jitomate, cebolla, chiles y cilantro, poner a calentar el comal, asar o tatemar los chinicuiles, mover constantemente para evitar que se quemen; deben quedar con textura crujiente, una vez dorados los reservamos. Colocar los jitomates, chiles, cebolla y ajos con todo y su cáscara en el comal y se asan, debe irse dándoles vuelta para que queden asados por completo. Cortar las hojas de cilantro. En un molcajete colocar el ajo asado sin la cáscara y la sal, triturar muy bien con el tejolote (mazo de roca que acompaña al molcajete) hasta que quede una consistencia cremosa. Continuar con la preparación agregando la cebolla asada, los chiles, adicionar los chinicuiles y molerlos, finalmente incorporar los jitomates. Continuar moliendo con el tejolote hasta lograr una consistencia martajada o bien machacada dependiendo del gusto; rectificar sazón con sal y adicionar el cilantro en la salsa junto con los chinicuiles y mezclar, servir con tortillas recién hechas y ¡a disfrutar! Una variante de esta salsa es adicionar pulque, el cual le aporta un toque ácido. Ambas versiones pueden utilizarse en tacos o como acompañamiento para cualquier platillo o guiso de su elección (Fig. 5). La conservación de los chinicuiles En poblaciones naturales de esta mariposa o polilla nocturna en su etapa larval se ve afectada por endo parasitoides, principalmente de moscas y también algunas bacterias que pueden llegar a causar gran mortalidad. Los recolectores de estas larvas no logran identificar dichas enfermedades, por lo que se pudieran estar comercializando gusanos infectados y afectando la cantidad de futuros potenciales chinicuiles (Miranda-Perkins et al., 2013; Ramos-Elorduy, 2006; Zetina y Llanderal, 2014). Por otro lado, actualmente parece existir una sobreexplotación del recurso. Aparentemente las poblaciones silvestres tanto del insecto como de los magueyes donde ellos habitan, se han reducido, debido al continuo incremento en el precio del chinicuil que se cotiza entre los $1,800.00 a 2,000.00 pesos mexicanos el litro. Adicionalmente, los recolectores, compradores y personas de las comunidades donde se llevan a cabo estas prácticas, perciben una disminución de estos insectos comestibles, pues personas entre los 30 a 50 años mencionan que durante su niñez era común consumirlos en tacos y que hoy en día solo en salsas “para que rinda”, hecho que puede ser por disminución de la abundancia o perdida de tradiciones. A pesar de estos argumentos, no existen investigaciones formales en ese sentido. Nuestro grupo de trabajo ha evidenciado en diversas localidades del estado, que cada año durante los meses de agosto a octubre existe un aprovechamiento de este recurso que deja como resultado gran cantidad de agaves blancos o cimarrones (Agave applanata) muertos (Fig. 3), lo cual seguramente tendrá efectos negativos tanto en el agave como en los chinicuiles. Actualmente realizamos investigaciones orientadas a documentar el estado actual de las poblaciones del agave blanco y el aprovechamiento 46 del chinicuil en el estado, esto con el objetivo de proponer estrategias de manejo sustentable del recurso que permita su permanencia. Por otro lado, existen iniciativas privadas como es el caso del BIOMATVI Laboratorio, quienes desarrollan diversas actividades entre ellas el desarrollo de un sistema agrícola sustentable con la incorporación del agave blanco o cimarrones (A. applanata), que permita la producción de chinicuiles de manera controlada, asegurando además la trazabilidad del producto, para un consumo responsable y consciente. Esta empresa cuenta con instalaciones destinadas al estudio biotecnológico de agaves, contando además con un programa de instalación de granjas piloto y demostrativas en los municipios de Zapotlán, Singuilucan y San Agustín Tlaxiaca con el objetivo de investigar y mejorar el sistema productivo de maguey blanco y pulquero. Dentro de las actividades que realiza el Laboratorio BIOMATVI, se destacan las prácticas de manejo como el trasplante, reubicación, propagación y micropropagación in vitro de los magueyes A. applanata, además de la recolección de chinicuiles en los magueyes silvestres para reproducirlos en sus granjas piloto. La empresa BIOMATVI lleva un conjunto de acciones orientadas a la preservación de este recurso natural, proponiendo como estrategia de protección aprovecharlo económicamente mediante el Sistema Productivo de Gusano Rojo. Existe incertidumbre en el aprovechamiento y manejo de este recurso, no parece existir algún tipo de regulación para la colecta y comercialización, aún no es claro cómo las poblaciones naturales de los magueyes utilizados responden a este aprovechamiento o si estamos en un caso de sobreexplotación. Como puede observarse, llevar estas larvas hasta la mesa implica a las personas que los comercializan esperar un año y tener experiencia para su recolecta. Hasta el momento se ha observado que algunas prácticas para conseguirlos afectan directamente a las poblaciones naturales de los magueyes sobre todo a Agave applanata, el cual es muy apreciado en Hidalgo por contener la mayor cantidad de larvas. En dicho estado, no existe alguna regulación para el uso y comercialización de este producto. Para lograr esto se debe poner en contexto la situación social y económica de todos los actores involucrados para comprender los motivos de sus buenas o malas prácticas. Se están realizando esfuerzos para dar a conocer la situación actual de los chinicuiles y los magueyes hospederos mediante pláticas de educación ambiental y sugerencias de reacomodo de los magueyes después de haber sido utilizados para colectar chinicuiles. Agradecimientos Agradecemos a los manejadores de agave y familias que nos abrieron las puertas de sus hogares para la realización de este trabajo. Este trabajo forma parte del Proyecto Investigadoras e Investigadores por México CONACYT CIR/0010/2022. Agradecemos al CONACYT por la beca con el número 892149 dentro del PNPC de Doctorado en Ciencias en Biodiversidad y Conservación, UAEH otorgada a MAGM. Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Literatura citada Álvarez-Ríos, G. D., Figueredo-Urbina, C. J. y Casas, A. 2020. Sistemas de manejo de maguey pulquero en México. Etnobiología, 18: 3-23. Chapa, M. 2013. Los tacos de México. Editorial Ink. 272 pp. Capítulo de libro de Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., Zizumbo-Villarreal, D., Torres, I., Casas, A., Figueredo Urbina, C. J., Rangel-Landa, S. Delgado-Lemus, A., Carrillo-Galván, G. 2017. Los agaves y las prácticas mesoamericanas de aprovechamiento, manejo y domesticación. Pp. 273-309. En: Casas, A, F. Parra & J. Torres-Guevara (Eds). Domesticación en el Continente Americano vol. 2 Investigación para el manejo sustentable de recursos genéticos en el Nuevo Mundo. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Universidad Agraria La Molina (UNALM) del Perú, Perú, 575 pp. Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO). 2019. EncicloVida. Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Ciudad de México. México. García-Mendoza, A. 2007. Los agaves de México. Ciencias, 87: 14-23. González, C. V., Contreras, T. R. 2009. La entomofagia en México. Algunos aspectos culturales. El Periplo Sustentable: revista de turismo, desarrollo y competitividad, 16: 57-83. Hernández-Livera, R. A., Llanderal-Cazáres, C., Castillo-Márquez, L. E., Valdez-Carrasco, J., Nieto-Hernández, R. 2005. Identificación de instares larvales de Comadia redtenbacheri (Hamm) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). Agrociencia, 39: 539-544. Muñoz Zurita, R. Larousse. 2012. Larousse Diccionario Enciclopédico Gastronomía Mexicana. Larousse. Ciudad de México, México. Llanderal-Cázares, C., Castro-Torres, R., Miranda-Perkins, K. 2017. Bionomics of Comadia redtenbacheri (Hammerschmidt, 1847) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). SHILAP Revista de Lepidopterología, 45: 373-383. Miranda-Perkins, K., Llanderal-Cázares, C., De los Santos-Posadas, H. M., Portillo-Martínez, L., Vigueras-Guzmán, A. L. 2013. Comadia redtenbacheri (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) pupal development in the laboratory. Florida Entomologist. 96:14241433. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.096.0422. Pijoan, M. 2001. El consumo de insectos, entre la necesidad y el placer gastronómico. Offarm: farmacia y Sociedad. 20: 150161. Ramírez, M. C., Mendoza, B. M., Hernández, E. G., María, E., Domínguez, H. 2017. Comadia redtenbacheri, individuo del Altiplano Hidalguense. Ciencias Multidisciplinarias Proceedings T-III, 51. Ramos-Elorduy, J. 2006. Threatened edible insect in Hidalgo, Mexico, and some measures to preserve them. Journal of Ethnobiology. 2:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-251 Sahagún, B. D. 2019. Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España I. Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España. Editorial Porrúa México, Tercera edición, México, 1076 pp. Ramos-Elorduy, J., Pino, J. M., y Conconi, M. 2006. Ausencia de una reglamentación y normalización de la explotación y comercialización de insectos comestibles en México. Folia Entomológica Mexicana. 45: 291-318. Zetina, D. H., Llanderal, C. 2014. Signs and symptoms in Comadia redtenbacheri Hamm. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) larvae affected by parasitoids. Southwestern Entomologist. 39(2), 285-290. https://doi.org/10.3958/059.039.0206 �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: Nahá and Metzabok, Ocosingo, Chiapas, México; with some ethnoherpetological notes ANA IRIS MELGAR-MARTÍNEZ, 2FELIPE RUAN-SOTO, 3EDUARDO CHANKIN-CHANKAYUN, 4ELÍ GARCÍA-PADILLA, 5IVÁN VILLALOBOS-JUÁREZ, 6VICENTE MATA-SILVA, 7EDUARDO ALEXIS LÓPEZESQUIVEL, 8LYDIA ALLISON FUCSKO, 9MARIO C. LAVARIEGA, 10JERRY D. JOHNSON, 11DAVID LAZCANO AND, 12LARRY DAVID WILSON 1 �   48 �Centro Ecoturístico Tres Lagunas, San Javier, Lacanjá Chansayab, Ocosingo, Chiapas 29950, México. Email: iris. melgar02@hotmail.com; e.chankin@ hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3462-3367 2 Laboratorio de Procesos bioculturales, educación y sustentabilidad. Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas. Libramiento Norte. Pte., Caleras Maciel, 29000 Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, México. Email: felipe.ruan@ unicach.mx http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2476-027X 4 Biodiversidad Mesoamericana. Oaxaca de Juárez, Oaxaca 68023, México. Email: eligarciapadilla25@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1081-8458 5 Organización Los Hijos del Desierto, Aguascalientes, México Email: lepidushunter@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0405-4626 6,10 Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968-0500, USA. Email: vmata@ utep.edu; jjohnson@utep.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8123-1844 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2135-4866 7 Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Ciudad de México, 04510, México. Email: eduardo.loes@ciencias. unam.mx https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5539-7389 8 Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Email: lydiafucsko@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2133-6617 9 Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional, Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Hornos 1003, 71230 Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, México. Email: mariolavnol@yahoo.com.mx https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2513-8244 11 Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Herpetología, Apartado Postal-157, San Nicolás de los Garza, C.P. 66450, Nuevo León, México. Email: imantodes52@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6292-5979 12 Centro Zamorano de Biodiversidad, Escuela Agrícola Panamericana Zamorano, Departamento de Francisco Morazán, Honduras; 1350 Pelican Court, Homestead, Florida 33035-1031, USA. Email: bufodoc@aol.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4969-0789 1, 3 Palabras clave: Etnoherpeotología, Anfibios, Reptiles, Selva Lacandona, Nahá, Metzabok Key words: Ethnoherpetology, Amphibians, Reptiles, Selva Lacandona, Nahá, Metzabok ABSTRACT Chiapas harbors significant biological and cultural diversity. The region known as Selva Lacandona is an ideal example to study what is called the “biocultural axiom”. This neotropical region is inhabited by multiple indigenous groups, such as the Tsotziles, Tseltales, Tojolabales, Ch’oles, Kanjobales, Chujes, Mames, Lacandones (Hach Winik), and Zoques. The herpetofaunistic diversity of Chiapas is currently represented by 107 species of amphibians and 223 species of reptiles. In the Selva Lacandona region a total of 35 species of amphibians and 90 reptiles has been documented, with some areas still remaining to be formally explored. Traditionally, the use of natural resources by native indigenous communities has been linked to the selective use of those species that have economical, traditional, and/or magical-religious value. Many of these human groups have a deep traditional knowledge about the environment in which they live, as well as the diversity of plant, fungal, and animal species with which they have coexisted over millennia. The Nahá and Metzabok communities are inhabited by the Maya-Lacandón del Norte culture. The objective of this study is to identify the herpetofaunistic species diversity found within the Flora and Fauna Protection Areas (APFF´s) of Nahá and Metzabok. Additionally, we analyzed whether the Lacandones from the north have a herpetofaunistic ethnical taxonomic classification system. A total of 67 species that are recognized by the Lacandones were recorded for both APFFs. The Lacandones del Norte classify the herpetofauna into six groups, i.e., Ak (Turtles), Kan (Snakes), Ayim (Crocodiles), Torok (Lizards), Xut (Frogs), and Be’p (Toads). For Metzabok, the three most frequently mentioned species are Bothrops asper, Boa imperator, and Crocodylus moreletii. For Nahá, the three species of most importance are Basiliscus vittatus, Boa imperator, and Kinosternon leucostomum. The differences lie in the fact that for the Lacandones of Metzabok, the most important animals are those that are represented in their oral narratives, while for the Nahá community; the most important species are those that they usually find on a daily basis when walking along the trails in the jungle. RESUMEN Chiapas alberga una gran diversidad biológica y cultural. La region conocida como Selva Lacandona es un ejemplo idóneo para estudiar a lo que se conoce como “axioma biocultural”. En esta región neotropical habitan varios grupos originarios, como los Tsotziles, Tseltales, Tojolabales, Ch’oles, Kanjobales, Chujes, Mames, Lacandones (Hach Winik), y Zoques. La diversidad herpetofaunística de Chiapas está representada al presente por 107 especies de anfibios y 223 especies de reptiles. En la región Selva Lacandona por su parte, se han documentado un total de 35 especies de anfibios y 90 de reptiles, permaneciendo aún algunas zonas sin exploración formal. Tradicionalmente el uso de los recursos naturales por parte de las comunidades originarias, ha estado ligado al aprovechamiento selectivo de aquellas especies que tienen valor económico, tradicional y/ó mágico-religioso. Muchos de estos grupos humanos tienen profundos conocimientos acerca del medio en que viven, así como de la diversidad de especies de plantas, hongos y animales con las que coexisten desde hace milenios. Las comunidades de Nahá y Metzabok están habitadas por la cultura Maya-Lacandón del Norte. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar a la diversidad de especies herpetofaunísticas que se encuentran dentro de las Áreas de Protección de Flora y Fauna (APFF´s) de Nahá y Metzabok. Adicionalmente, se analizó si el pueblo lacandón del norte contaba con un sistema de clasificación etnotaxonómica de la herpetofauna. Se registraron un total de 67 especies que son reconocidas por los lacandones para ambas APFF´s. Se identificó que los lacandones clasifican a la herpetofauna en 6 grupos: Ak (Tortugas), Kan (Serpientes), Ayim (Cocodrilos), Torok (Lagartijas), Xut (ranas) y Be’p (Sapos). El análisis de frecuencia de mención sitúa a las especies en distinto orden. Para Metzabok, las primeras 3 especies de importancia son: Bothrops asper, Boa imperator y Crocodylus moreletii. Para Nahá, las primeras tres especies de importancia son: Basiliscus vittatus, Boa imperator, y Kinosternon leucostomum. La diferencia radica en que para los lacandones de Metzabok los animales más importantes son los que se encuentran representados en sus narrativas orales, mientras que para la comunidad de Nahá, las especies de mayor importancia son las que suelen encontrar cotidianamente al realizar recorridos por los senderos de la selva. 49 �W DEDICATION E DEDICATE THIS CONTRIBUTION TO THE MEMORY OF CHAN K´IN VIEJO, “EL SABIO DE LA SELVA LACANDONA” (1900-1996; FIGURE 1). HE WAS THE LAST TO’OHIL OR SPIRITUAL LEADER IN THE HISTORY, MYTHOLOGY, AND COSMOGONY OF THE LACANDONES OR HACH WINIK OF THE COMMUNITY OF NAHÁ. HE MANAGED TO PRESERVE AND KEEP TOGETHER THE CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF HIS PEOPLE, SHARING THROUGH COSMOLOGICAL STORIES THE ORAL TRADITION OF THE MAYAN ANCESTORS. IN 1994, DURING A LACANDÓN COUNCIL, HE DENOUNCED THE THEFT AND FELLING OF TREES IN HIS COMMUNITY BY OUTSIDERS WHO THREATENED THEM. ONE OF HIS MOST REMEMBERED PHRASES IS: “THE GOVERNMENT SENT US HERE TO NAHÁ, AND THEY TOLD US THAT THIS IN NAHÁ WAS OURS. WE TAKE CARE OF THE FOREST. NOW THEY HAVE TAKEN AWAY OUR LAND AND ARE SELLING THE TREES. GOD IS ANGRY; I AM SADDENED BY THE COLD THAT HAS ENTERED THE HEARTS OF THE PEOPLE. I AM VERY OLD AND HERE I AM GOING TO DIE. WE DON’T WANT THEM TO TAKE OUT THE TREES THAT ARE OUR LIFE, THEY ASK FOR THE RAIN TO COME. THE CAOBA AND CHICLE TREES ARE OUR LIFE, THEY HAVE LIFE, WHEN THE TREES ARE FINISHED, WE ARE GOING TO FINISH TOO”. HE FINALLY DIED IN NAHÁ ON DECEMBER 23, 1996 AND HE LEFT THE SPIRITUAL RESPONSIBILITY TASK ON THE FIGURE OF DON ANTONIO MARTÍNEZ CHAN K´IN (FIGURE 2) WHO HAS TAKEN THE LEAD AND MAINTAINS ALIVE TO DATE THE SACRED RITUALS, TRADITIONS, AND CULTURAL BELIEFS OF THE HACH WINIK (THE TRUE PEOPLE) IN THE MYTHICAL SELVA LACANDONA. “ALL LIVING BEINGS ARE RELATED, TIED TO THE SAME ROOT. WHEN HACHAKIUM (TRUE GOD) MADE THE STARS, HE MADE THEM OUT OF SAND AND STONES AND PLANTED THEM. THE ROOTS OF EACH STAR ARE THE ROOTS OF A TREE; WHEN A TREE FALLS, A STAR FALLS FROM THE SKY.” ~ CHAN K’IN VIEJO 50 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Introduction T he Mexican state of Chiapas stands out for its great biodiversity of amphibians and reptiles, only surpassed by that harbored in Veracruz and Oaxaca (García-Padilla et al., 2022). A total of 107 species of amphibians and 223 species of reptiles have been identified, of which a total of 26 species are endemic at the state level (Johnson et al., 2015). The mythical region known as Selva Lacandona is one of the most important multicultural and biodiverse regions of the state of Chiapas and in all of Mexico. Rzedowski (1983 cited in Lazcano-Barrero et al., 1992) estimated that the tropical forests of Mexico originally included 12% of the national territory, and that by 1981 they constituted less than 1%. In 1985, the figures for the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information Technology of Mexico (INEGI, 1985), point out that in the country remained a total of 114,060 km2 of “jungles”. In the Lacandona region, the jungles had an original extension of approximately 1,300,000 has; According to Calleros and Brauer (1983) by 1982, a total of 584,178 hectares had been transformed, that is the 45% of the total wooded area (Lazcano-Barrero et al., op. cit.). After this severe rhythm of transformation of the territory, however, the federal Natural Protected Areas of the Selva Lacandona, which only represent ca. 0.9% of the national territory, currently remains with less than 300,000 hectares of pristine rainforest, which are estimated to conserve a fifth of the biological diversity of Mexico and 30 % of the clean water resources. The herpetofauna of the region has been estimated as a total of 35 species of amphibians and 90 species of reptiles (Hernández-Ordoñez et al., 2015), with vast areas remaining without formal exploration, such as the northern portion. The National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP), an environmental government institution affiliated with SEMARNAT, regulates and establishes the management plans for Natural Protected Areas (NPA´s). They have provided a deficient record of the biodiversity of Nahá and Metzabok composed of a total of 19 herpetofaunal species (CONANP, 2006 a, b). This document lacked peer review and the checklist has not been updated until now. Here we present an updated checklist of the herpetofauna with some pertinent ethnoherpetological notes as a result of the field work led by IMG and ECC, who carried out over ca. one-year sampling in the field with the help of the local indigenous field guides of the Maya Lacandón or “Hach Winik” communities from Nahá and Metzabok in the northern portion of the mythical Selva Lacandona. Methods The field work in the two study areas was carried out for six months (August to October 2015 and February to Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 Figure 2.-. A portrait of Don Antonio Martínez Chan K´in, the current spiritual leader of the community of Nahá. Photo by Elí García-Padilla June 2016) with visits from 10 to 15 days per month in the two communities, gathering the necessary information through the application of informal interviews in a participant observation framework and complemented with ethnobiological tours led by local members of the communities. During the interviews, we had the help of a local translator. The first stage of the interviews was carried out through informal conversations and adding as an aid a catalog of photographs of the herpetofaunistic species that were registered previously by the National Commission of Protected Natural Areas (CONANP) personnel or those of expected occurrence based on the pertinent literature available in each of the two Natural Protected Areas. The searches for the existing herpetofauna were carried out under the criteria of Gaviño et al., (1982), in which there is no fixed limit of search extension, but rather the direct search, by known microhabitat, as well as a fixed time for the researcher; the search was from September 2015 to June 2016 covering the dry and rainy seasons. The hours were from 7 am to 10 am, from 1 to 3 pm, and from 9 pm 51 THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 1.-. A portrait of Chan K´in Viejo also known as the “Sabio de la Selva Lacandona”. Photo taken from internet without available data of authorship. �Figure 3. A portrait of Moisés, a Lacandón child from the community of Nahá. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez to 12 am. For the collection of corresponding data for the species, the capture techniques of Casas-Andreu et al., (1991) were taken into account. The searches were carried out in the company of park rangers, people from the community, or external companions. The identifications were carried out with the taxonomic identification keys by Flores-Villela (1995), as well as with the help of Köhler’s field guides (2003, 2010). Area of study The research area of this study is included in the northern portion of the Selva Lacandona region, in the Maya Lacandón (Hach Winik) communities of Nahá and Metzabok (Figure 3, 5, 6). The polygonal outline of the site extends from 16 ° 56’ 41 ‘’ to 17 ° 08’ 36 ‘’ north latitude and from 91 ° 32’ 52 ‘’ to 91 ° 40’ 09 ‘’ west longitude. The total area of ​​the protected areas of Nahá and Metzabok amounts to 7, 215.76 hectares; the latter were declared as protected areas with the character of Protected Areas of Flora and Fauna (APFF) on September 23, 1998, according to the publication of the Official Gazette of the Federation (DOF, 1998). The Selva Lacandona derives its name from an indigenous community that has lived in it since prehispanic times, i.e., The Lacantunes=Lacandones. During the colonization, this is how the Spaniards referred to the Indians of Lacamtún. The etymology is derived from lacam: large; and tun: stone), as the Lacandones designated the main islet of the Miramar lagoon, in 52 which they had built the small headquarters of their extensive jungle territory. The Spanish conquest changed the Mayan toponym Lacamtún for that of “Lacandón” and used this Castilianized name to designate not only the island but also the lagoon and the region around it. In the last century, the foreign hunters who also cut mahogany and cedar in the region no longer used the colonial name; they called that part of the Lacandona Desert of Ocosingo or “Desierto de La Soledad,” and the lagoon was known as Laguna Buenavista. The current names of Selva Lacandona and Miramar are recent appellations, assigned by explorers and loggers in the 1920s. Worth noting is that the modern concept of Selva Lacandona, in addition to being botanical and geographical, is also political, since it refers exclusively to the Mexican part of the tropical forest (De Vos and Marion, 2015). Vegetation The Nahá and Metzabok areas are located in the transition zone between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, and are characterized by their great diversity, richness, and ecological fragility (CONANP, 2006b). The vegetation of Nahá and Metzabok, according to the classification of Rzedowski (1978) includes five different types of plant associations, including: Tropical Evergreen Forest, Thorny Forest, Cloudy Mountain Forest, Coniferous Forest, and Secondary Vegetation (Acahuales), which specifically for Nahá, are the Mesophyllous Mountain and Coniferous Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Figure 5.-. A map depicting the types of vegetation within the Nahá and Metzabok communities. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 53 THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 4. The geographic location of the Nahá and Metzabok communities in the Mexican state of Chiapas, México. �Forests, and for Metzabok, the Thorny Forest (Figure 4). Both Protected Areas have a registry of 779 species of vascular plants, which belong to 452 genera of 116 families (CONANP, 2006b). Fifty-one percent of the species are grouped in the families Araceae, Arecaceae, Bromeliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Melastomataceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Orchidaceae, and Rubiaceaceae (CONANP, 2006a). Fauna The Selva Lacandona harbors a high level of biological biodiversity. Being in the midst of political, social, cultural, and ecological conflicts, however, it has been transforming day after day. Chiapas has a total record of 207 species of mammals (Rivero and Medellín, 2015). The region with the highest species richness is the Selva Lacandona with 134 species (Rivero and Medellín, op. cit.). The diversity of amphibians and reptiles reported is 35 species of amphibians and 90 species of reptiles (Hernández-Ordoñez et al., 2015). The analysis of the avifauna in the Lacandona is complemented by other previous and subsequent works that give an updated result in the list that is totally made up of 344 bird species (González-García, 1993). Cultural context The Lacandon Maya tribe have inhabited the region known as the Selva Lacandona since ancient times. Some authors have characterized the Maya-Lacandón as an indigenous group that, for a long time, remained isolated in the jungle. In the mid-nineteenth century, however, with the entry of logging and chiclero groups, as well as oil exploration workers, new paths were opened that allowed access to communication between the Lacandón villages and the rest of the state (CONANP, 2006b). In the mid-20th century, the distribution of indigenous groups of the Tseltal and Cho’l ethnic groups, mainly from the Altos de Chiapas and the Ocosingo Valley, gradually colonized the region starting in 1960, integrating more than 1,000 communities, rural areas of between 50 and 100 families who demanded the expropriation of land to be assigned to them as social property through the provision of ejidos, leaving the Lacandón clans immersed within the new established ejido population centers (CONANP, op.cit). Thus, some civil society organizations promoted the relocation of Lacandon families in new areas, so that in 1972 the current five Lacandón nuclei were formed: Lacanjá Chansayab, San Javier, Bethel, Nahá, and Metzabok, the last two communities being the ones that constitute those known as Lacandones del Norte, concentrating approximately 20% of the total of this ethnical group that is at the same time one of the smallest ethnic groups of Mexico (CONANP, 2006 a, b) Currently, the official organization at the regional level is represented by the authorities of the Zona Lacandona Community, an indigenous alliance made up of three ethnic groups: Maya-Lacandones, Choles, and Tseltales. Its highest authority is constituted by the Commissariat 54 of Communal Assets and its Surveillance Council, made up of members of the three ethnic groups, elected in the Great Assembly held every three years, for which they bring together all 51 of the comuneros belonging to the Community. By regulation, the Commissariat must always be occupied by a Maya-Lacandón member (CONANP, 2006a). The subsistence of the Lacandones has been based on the empirical knowledge of their environment and the development of a complex traditional agricultural system, which is complemented by the collection of fruits, seeds, and vines from the jungle, and hunting and fishing in rivers and lakes. It can be assured, with certainty, that, since the end of the 20th century, the Lacandón ethnic group has been subject to a constant and growing external influence, which contrasts with the fact that, during most of their history, they were a human group that lived outside many of the economic and social processes that shaped the history of Chiapas and the rest of the indigenous groups that inhabit the state territory. The Nahá and Metzabok area is made up of eight ejidos and small communities, which are settled in the valleys, where the rivers and dirt roads run that link the region with two cities, to the east with the city of Palenque, and to the south with the city of Ocosingo. According to the most recent censuses carried out by the Rural Medical Units for the year 2006, in Nahá there are 253 inhabitants and Metzabok has 67 inhabitants. The population of the region is totally indigenous, and they use their mother language, the Maya-Lacandón, to express themselves on a daily basis. Virtually all men under the age of 50 speak Spanish fluently, and the vast majority of young people can read and write. In general terms, few adult women can speak Spanish fluently; this is largely due to reduced contact with outsiders relative to the men. The indigenous language is solidly maintained and used daily in its oral form; however, only a few members of the community are interested in developing writing in their language, so the vast majority ignores the grammatical elements to express themselves in writing in their own language. Some schools have now included elementary lessons in reading and writing in their local language, which is of great value to their cultures (Montes, 2005). Results As a result of the field work and the literature records, we found that the herpetofauna in both communities is composed as follows: in the case of amphibians, we recorded 22 species grouped into nine families and two orders. In the case of the reptiles, 45 species were recorded grouped into 21 families and three orders. In general, 67 herpetofaunal species were registered in the area of the APFF Nahá and Metzabok, included in 30 families and five orders (see Table 1; figures 7 to 35). The distributional categorization analysis of the 67 species involved in this study produced a figure of a total of 2 country endemic species, 40 species native to Mexico Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Tem (°C) 20.9 21.2 23.1 25.2 25.6 25.6 24.7 24.6 25.3 24.2 22.3 21.1 23.6 Pre (mm) 41.9 24.7 26.1 32.7 101.3 265.4 263.6 350.6 345.3 249.9 107.5 52.9 1862 and Central America, 19 species are ranging from Mexico to South America, 4 are species ranging from the United States to Central America and only 2 are species ranging from the United States to South America. area of the REBIMA is just ca. 331, 200 hectares of the great total of ca. 1.8 million of hectares that comprises the entire Selva Lacandona. Lazcano-Barrero et al. (1992) recorded a total of 72 species for the REBIMA and Ramírez and León-Pérez (2016) recorded a total 119 species for the region. More recently, HernándezOrdoñez et al. (2015) documented a total of 35 species of amphibians and 90 species of reptiles. The last authors, however, did not cover the northern portion of the Selva Lacandona. Taking this last piece of information as a reference, we can see how Nahá and Metzabok together contain a little more than half the species of REBIMA, which would place them as areas of great biological importance. If the lists made by CONANP are taken as a reference, the APFF Metzabok has a total record of 19 species and currently 67 herpetofaunistic species were obtained, contributing 3 times more than what was recorded in 2006 by the Mexican government and its environmental institutions. The Environmental Vulnerability Score (EVS; Wilson et al., 2013a, b) was applied to the 67 herpetofaunistic species. We found that 32 species are considered inside the low vulnerability category, 28 species fell inside the medium vulnerability category and a total of 6 species are in the highest vulnerability category. During the field work, a total of 67 informal interviews were carried out in the two study communities (Metzabok n=37 and Nahá n=30), covering 50% and 11%, respectively, of the total population of each town (Metzabok n= 67 and Nahá n=253, according to the Instituto Nacional Electoral [INEGI, 2001]). The interviews were directed to two people in each family. If focus groups were formed, they were also taken into account; in this way, older adults, adults, young people, and children were able to participate. The herpetofauna of Naha and Metzabok consisting of 67 species, are estimated to be only ca. 50 % of that of the Selva Lacandona as a whole. However, it is quite significant when we compare these numbers with those available in other important tropical areas also considered or believed as being the most biodiverse areas in Mexico, as it is the case of the Los Chimalapas region in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca and Los Tuxtlas in Veracruz. The herpetofauna of Naha and Metzabok represents the 43 % of that of the Los Chimalapas and 41 % of that of the Los Tuxtlas (GarcíaPadilla et al., 2021; López-Luna et al., 2017). We found that the northern Lacandones have a traditional classification of the amphibians and reptiles, in which they separate the herpetofauna into six major groups: toads or be ́p, frogs or xut, turtles or ak, crocodiles or ayim, lizards or torok, and snakes or kan. Within each group, some species are given a more specific name, either because of their morphology, their color, some vocalization they generate, the place where they have been found, or some history or story related to that species (see Table 2). Regarding the ethno-taxonomy, Góngora-Arones (1987) mentioned that the Lacandones of Lacanjá Chansayab recognize six groups into which they divide the herpetofauna: torok (lizards), ak (turtles), kan (snakes), ayim (crocodiles), chut or T’iu (frog), ran (toads). This classification in some groups is identical to the classification provided by the Northern Lacandones in Discussion Most previous herpetofaunistic works consider Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (REBIMA) to refer to the Selva Lacandona, an approach that is in fact incorrect. The Table 2. Summary of ordinal numbers of native and non-native species in the herpetofauna of the Naha and Metzabok region of Chiapas, the state of Chiapas, and the country of Mexico. Percentages include ratios of those in the Nahá and Metzabok compared to those in the state of Chiapas and the country of México. Data for the state of Chiapas from Johnson et al., 2015 and for Mexico from Johnson (et al., 2017). Groups Nahá and Metzabok Chiapas 20 79 253 25.3/7.9 Anura Caudata Mexico Percentage 2 25 156 8.0/1.3 Gymnophiona — 3 3 0/0 Subtotals 22 107 412 20.5/5.3 Crocodylia 1 3 3 33.3/33.3 Squamata 39 203 906 19.2/4.3 Testudines 5 17 52 29.4/9.6 Subtotals 45 223 961 20.1/4.6 Totals 67 330 1,373 20.3/4.8 Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 55 THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Table 1. Average temperature and precipitation data recorded by the Las Tazas station, for the Naha and Metzabok regions. �Figure 6.-. A panoramic view of the main lagoons and the tropical evergreen forest in the community of Puerto Bello Metzabok, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Photo by Elí García-Padilla. this study; however, while investigating the classification of the herpetofauna in the Lacanjá Chansayab community, we can see that some data provided by Góngora-Arones (1987) might not have been understood in the correct or inclusive way. According to more recent informal interviews with Lacandones from Lacanjá, the herpetofauna is classified into: torok (lizards), ak (turtles), kan (snakes), ayim (crocodiles) and Rerek (frogs and toads), forming five groups, of which there are subdivisions that take into account the morphology, coloration, vocalization, and habits. This is still similar to what the northern Lacandones identify; however, a notable difference in the classification of reptiles and amphibians is that toads are separated from frogs. The importance of a species within a culture, however, will give it more specific names; this happens with snakes, which would give us an idea of ​​how important snakes are for the Lacandon people. Their interest in conservation, as well as their beliefs and fears, make snakes very important in their culture. The Tojolabales (González, 2001) recognize four groups, separating toads, turtles, snakes, and venomous snakes. The Mam culture also has its own classification system where snakes are recognized as Kan. These are clear examples that the herpetofauna in certain cultures of Chiapas has an important place and is given a classification. In the case of the northern Lacandones, the group of snakes is called Kan, which coincides with how the Mam culture knows snakes; it is possible that it derives from ancestral knowledge given the Mayan roots of most ethnic groups in Chiapas. Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions Through this study, it was possible to expand the herpetofaunistic record that was described by CONANP in 2006. In total, the Nahá and Metzabok communities 56 contain a total of 67 species, including 22 species of amphibians and 45 species of reptiles. The traditional form of classification of the Lacandones from the north divides and recognizes the groups of crocodiles, lizards, turtles, frogs, toads and snakes. Salamanders are included within lizards. Their organization system depends on coloration, morphology, vocalization, habits, and habitat of the involved groups of species. Among the factors that constantly threaten the behavior and culture of the Lacandones is the establishment of the APFF´s decrees. These areas and their own dynamics have contributed to increase the abandonment of cultural beliefs and traditions regarding faunal species, to the detriment of the conservation of all species. In this sense, a series of operating rules have been generated that the Lacandón people must abide by in order to have access to federal projects that generate monetary gains for them. The income from environmental services implemented by the federal government in the Lacandona has led to the abandonment of daily practices in Nahá, allowing entry to Tzeltal or Chol people to work the land. On the other hand, the Evangelical, Pentecostal, and Seventhday churches are undoubtedly a very important and decisive factor in cultural change by prohibiting the worship of traditional deities, speaking of their beliefs, the development of their rituals, of their songs and prayers. This influence results in the interruption of the previously strong link between nature and human societies. Recommendations We strongly urge the Mexican government to guarantee the effective recognition of the collective rights of the ethnical groups of Mexico and their traditional knowledge and languages. In the case of Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �Acknowledgments The preparation of this document and the photographic inventory would not have been possible without the field collaboration and contribution of Rafael Tarano-González and Jaime Tarano-López (father and son, respectively) who are both members T of the Lacandon community of Puerto Bello Metzabok. We also thank the biologist and photographer Daniel Ochoa for the donation of his splendid image of Agalychnis moreletii. We also thank the local authorities and members of the communities of Nahá and Metzabok for all their support and companionship during the field work invested by AIMM and ECC, specially to Don Enrique Valenzuela (current Subcomisariado) and his wife María Gutiérrez. EGP also visited the communities of Nahá and Metzabok twice in 2011 and 2012 to explore and photograph the deepest regions of Chiapas and the mythical Selva Lacandona and their current guardians: The Hach Winik or Mayas-Lacandones, the true people. AIMM would like to dedicate all this academic effort invested to her parents, and to the entire people of Metzabok who adopted her as if she were part of the community, especially to the local children Bor and Moisés for always running with her looking for herps (“bichos”). EGP would also like to dedicate this collaborative contribution to his only begotten son K´in B´alam (Sol Jaguar) García-Morales. HEN HACHAKYUM (TRUE GOD) MADE THE FOREST. IT WAS GOOD... HE SAW THAT IT WAS GOOD. HE SAW THE STONES COME OUT. THERE WERE STONES IN THE FOREST, EVERYTHING WAS LIFTED (...IN DUE ORDER). SO THE LAND WAS GOOD.” Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 (CHAN K´IN VIEJO) 57 THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES the Maya Lacandones of Nahá and Metzabok, we are talking about one of the smallest ethnical groups or minorities; however, they still possess their native language and cultural traditions, beliefs, and customs. They are in fact the owners and the best guardians of one of the most important remnants of biodiversity at the country and Mesoamerica levels. Their strong link between society and nature enables them to persist during millennia with a semi- nomadic style of life inside the great Selva Maya. The knowledge and cosmogony they maintain is vital to understanding the reasons why they have resisted the destruction of their common home, i.e., the rainforest. �Table 3. Updated and corrected list of the amphibians and reptiles in the Naha & Metzabok region. Taxa Maya Lacandon names Distributional status Environmental Vulnerability Category (Score) IUCN Categorization SEMARNAT Status Incilius macrocristatus Sut/Torosh NE4 M (11) VU Pr Incilius valliceps Sut/Torosh NE4 L (6) LC NS Be’p NE7 L (3) LC NS Yax xut NE4 M (10) NE NS Craugastor alfredi Xut NE4 M (11) VU NS Craugastor laticeps Xut NE4 M (12) NT Pr Craugastor rugulosus* Xut CE M (13) LC NS Dendropsophus ebraccatus Xut NE6 M (10) LC NS Dendropsophus microcephala Xut NE6 L (7) LC NS Smilisca baudinii Kek ich NE7 L (3) LC NS Smilisca cyanosticta Kek ich NE4 M (12) NT NS Tlalocohyla loquax NE4 L (7) LC NS Tlalocohyla picta NE4 L (8) LC NS Xut Kek ich NE6 L (4) LC NS Xut NE7 L (4) LC NS Order Anura (20 species) Family Bufonidae (3 species) Rhinella horribilis Family Centrolenidae (1 species) Hyalinobatrachium viridissimum Family Craugastoridae (3 species) Family Hylidae (7 species) Trachycephalus vermiculatus Family Microhylidae (1 species) Hypopachus variolosus Family Phyllomedusidae (2 species) Agalychnis moreletii NE4 L (7) CR NS Agalychnis taylori NE4 M (11) NE NS Family Ranidae (2 species) Lithobates brownorum Yax o’ xut NE4 L (8) NE Pr Lithobates vaillanti Yax o’ xut NE6 L (9) LC NS Wo´ NE7 L (8) LC NS Chum pets kin NE4 H (15) VU NS Xum pets kin NE4 L (9) LC Pr Ayim NE4 M (13) LC Pr Ter’ torok NE4 L (7) NE NS Corytophanes hernandesii NE4 M (13) NE Pr Laemanctus longipes NE4 L (9) LC Pr Sat NE6 M (10) NE Pr Norops capito Sat/Torok NE4 M (13) NE NS Norops laeviventris Sat/Torok NE4 L (9) NE NS Norops lemurinus Sat/Torok NE4 L (8) NE NS Family Rhinophrynidae (1 species) Rhinophrynus dorsalis Order Caudata (2 species) Family Plethodontidae (2 species) Bolitoglossa mulleri Bolitoglossa rufescens Order Crocodylia (1 species) Family Crocodylidae (1 species) Crocodylus moreletii Order Squamata (39 species) Family Corytophanidae (3 species) Basiliscus vittatus Family Dactyloidae (6 species) Norops biporcatus * = endemic species of Mexico. ** = endemic species of Chiapas-Naha and Metzabok. TC = Species documented in the authors’ field work. M = record of a scientific collection-museum specimen. Distribution Status: NE = non-endemic; CE = country endemic; RE = regional endemic. The numbers suffixed to the NE category signify the distributional categories developed by Wilson et al., (2017) and implemented in the taxonomic list at the Mesoamerican Herpetology website (mesoamericanherpetology.com), as follows: 3 (species distributed only in Mexico and the United States); 6 (species ranging from Mexico to South America); 7 (species ranging from the United States to Central America); and 8 (species ranging from the United States to South America). Environmental Vulnerability Category (Score): A = High (14–20), M = Medium (10–13) and B = Low (3–9). IUCN categorizations: CR (Critically Endangered); EN (Endangered); VU (Vulnerable); NT (Near Threatened); LC (Least Concern); DD (Data Deficient); NE (Not Evaluated). SEMARNAT Status: P = Endangered; A = Threatened; Pr = Special Protection; NS = No Status. 58 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Table 3. Updated and corrected list of the amphibians and reptiles in the Naha & Metzabok region. Norops uniformis Sat/Torok NE4 M (13) NE NS Norops unilobatus Sat/Torok NE4 L (7) NE NS NE4 L (9) NE A Huj NE4 M (10) NE NS Sceloporus serrifer Si ro NE4 L (6) LC NS Sceloporus variabilis Si ro NE4 L (5) NE NS - NE6 M (10) NE Pr Pi kan puts NE4 M (12) NE NS Pi kan puts NE4 L (8) NE NS Holcosus festivus Mechech NE6 M (11) NE NS Holcosus stuarti* Mechech CE L (13) NE NS Pik an puts NE4 L (8) NE Pr Ach kan NE6 M (10) NE A Family Eublepharidae (1 species) Coleonyx elegans Family Iguanidae (1 species) Iguana rhinolopha Family Phrynosomatidae (2 species) Family Phyllodactylidae (1 species) Thecadactylus rapicauda Family Scincidae (1 species) Plestiodon sumichrasti Family Sphenomorphidae (1 species) Scincella cherriei Family Teiidae (2 species) Family Xantusidae (1 species) Lepidophyma flavimaculatum Family Boidae (1 species) Boa imperator Family Colubridae (7 species) Drymarchon melanurus U kan i ja NE6 L (6) LC NS Yax kan /Mejen chay NE8 L (6) NE NS Chak kan NE6 L (7) NE A Leptophis mexicanus Yax kan NE4 L (6) LC A Oxybelis fulgidus Yax kan NE6 L (9) NE NS Oxybelis potosiensis - NE4 H (15) NE NS Phrynonax poecilonotus - NE6 M (10) LC NS Chak kan NE4 M (10) DD NE Coniophanes piceivittis LE’ kan NE4 L (7) LC NS Imantodes cenchoa LE’ kan NE6 L (6) NE Pr Awichu/LE’kan NE8 L (8) NE NS Chak kan NE4 L (5) NE NS - NE4 M (12) LC NE Upe chik u vah NE6 M (13) NE NS NE4 M (13) LC Pr Drymobius margaritiferus Lampropeltis polyzona Family Dipsadidae (7 species) Adelphicos quadrivirgatum Leptodeira septentrionalis Ninia sebae Rhadinella kinkelini Xenodon angustirostris Family Elapidae (1 species) Micrurus apiatus Family Viperidae (4 species) Bothriechis schlegelli U ko mi NE6 M (12) NE NS Bothrops asper Jach kan NE6 M (12) NE NS Metlapilcoatlus mexicanus U ko mi NE4 M (12) NE NS Porthidium nasutum U ko mi NE6 H (14) LC Pr * = endemic species of Mexico. ** = endemic species of Chiapas-Naha and Metzabok. TC = Species documented in the authors’ field work. M = record of a scientific collection-museum specimen. Distribution Status: NE = non-endemic; CE = country endemic; RE = regional endemic. The numbers suffixed to the NE category signify the distributional categories developed by Wilson et al., (2017) and implemented in the taxonomic list at the Mesoamerican Herpetology website (mesoamericanherpetology.com), as follows: 3 (species distributed only in Mexico and the United States); 6 (species ranging from Mexico to South America); 7 (species ranging from the United States to Central America); and 8 (species ranging from the United States to South America). Environmental Vulnerability Category (Score): A = High (14–20), M = Medium (10–13) and B = Low (3–9). IUCN categorizations: CR (Critically Endangered); EN (Endangered); VU (Vulnerable); NT (Near Threatened); LC (Least Concern); DD (Data Deficient); NE (Not Evaluated). SEMARNAT Status: P = Endangered; A = Threatened; Pr = Special Protection; NS = No Status. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 59 �Table 3. Updated and corrected list of the amphibians and reptiles in the Naha & Metzabok region. Order Testudines (5 species) Family Chelydridae (1 species) Chelydra rossignonii Ne ak NE4 H (17) VU NS - NE4 H (17) CR P Kan ak NE6 M (13) VU NE Chak ich NE6 M (10) NE Pr Ak / Le’t NE4 H (14) NT A Family Dermatemydidae (1 species) Dermatemys mawii Family Emydidae (1 species) Trachemys venusta Family Kinosternidae (1 species) Kinosternon leucostomum Family Staurotypidae (1 species) Staurotypus triporcatus * = endemic species of Mexico. ** = endemic species of Chiapas-Naha and Metzabok. TC = Species documented in the authors’ field work. M = record of a scientific collection-museum specimen. Distribution Status: NE = non-endemic; CE = country endemic; RE = regional endemic. The numbers suffixed to the NE category signify the distributional categories developed by Wilson et al., (2017) and implemented in the taxonomic list at the Mesoamerican Herpetology website (mesoamericanherpetology.com), as follows: 3 (species distributed only in Mexico and the United States); 6 (species ranging from Mexico to South America); 7 (species ranging from the United States to Central America); and 8 (species ranging from the United States to South America). Environmental Vulnerability Category (Score): A = High (14–20), M = Medium (10–13) and B = Low (3–9). IUCN categorizations: CR (Critically Endangered); EN (Endangered); VU (Vulnerable); NT (Near Threatened); LC (Least Concern); DD (Data Deficient); NE (Not Evaluated). SEMARNAT Status: P = Endangered; A = Threatened; Pr = Special Protection; NS = No Status. Table 4. Summary of distributional categorization for the species of the herpetofauna of the Nahá and Metzabok region of the Selva Lacandona. Groups Non-endemic Species Country Endemics Totals 20 4 6 7 8 11 4 4 — 1 Caudata 2 — — — — 2 Subtotals 13 4 4 — 1 22 Anura Crocodylia 1 — — — — 1 Squamata 23 13 — 2 1 39 Testudines 3 2 — — — 5 Subtotals 27 15 — 2 1 45 40 19 4 2 2 67 Totals The numbers indicated below the non-endemic box refer to the following distributional categories (as explained in Wilson et al.,2017): 3 (MXUS—species distributed only in Mexico and the United States); 4 (MXCA—species found only in Mexico and Central America); 6 (MXSA— species ranging from Mexico to South America); 7 (USCA—species ranging from the United States to Central America); and 8 (USSA—species ranging from the United States to South America). Table 5. Summary of conservation status for the species of the herpetofauna of the Nahá and Metzabok region of the Selva Lacandona, Mexico. The numbers below the Environmental Vulnerability Score box are the range of scores evident for the herpetofauna. Groups Environmental Vulnerability Score 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IUCN Categorizations SEMARNAT Totals 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 CR EN VU NT LC DD NE P A Pr NS Anura 2 2 — 1 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 — — — — 1 — 2 2 12 — 3 — — 2 18 20 Caudata — — — — — — 1 — — — — — 1 — — — — 1 — 1 — — — — 1 1 2 Subtotals 2 2 — 1 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 — 1 — — 1 — 3 2 13 — 3 — — 3 19 22 Crocodylia — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — 1 — 1 Squamata — — 2 5 4 4 4 6 1 5 6 1 1 — — — — — — 9 1 29 — 4 8 27 39 Testudines — — — — — — — 1 — — 1 1 — — 2 1 — 2 1 — — 1 1 1 1 2 5 Subtotals — — 2 5 4 4 4 7 1 5 7 2 1 — 2 1 — 2 1 10 1 30 1 5 9 29 45 Totals 2 2 2 6 7 7 6 9 4 7 8 2 2 — 2 2 — 5 3 23 1 33 1 5 12 48 67 The abbreviations below the IUCN Categorization box signify the following: CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient; and NE = Not Evaluated. 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Mesoamerican Herpetology 4(4): 901–913 �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 7. A panoramic view of the main lagoon called Laguna de Nahá in the community of Nahá, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Photo by Elí García-Padilla. Figure 8. Tropical evergreen forest in the community of Nahá. Photo by Elí García-Padilla. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 63 �Figure 9. The vegetation type known as “tintales” which consist on a seasonally flooded ecosystem. Metzabok. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 10. Incilius valliceps (Weigmann, 1833). The Southern Gulf Coast Toad is distributed from Central Veracruz (Mexico) to northern Costa Rica on the Atlantic versant; from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to south-central Guatemala on the Pacific slope; isolated record for El Salvador, sea level to 2000 m elevation (Frost, 2022). This individual came from the community of Nahá, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as 6 placing it in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and it is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Elí GarcíaPadilla 64 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 11. Rhinella horribilis (Weigmann, 1833). The Mesoamerican Cane Toad is distributed from the Lower Rio Grande Valley region of southern Texas (USA) and southern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua (Mexico) south along the coastal plains through tropical lowland Mexico and Central America to the west slope of the Venezuelan Andes, western and northern Colombia, west coast of Ecuador, and extreme northwestern Peru (Frost, 2022). This individual came from the vicinity of Nahá in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as 3 placing it in the lowest limit of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 12. Craugastor laticeps (Duméril, 1853). The Broad-headed Rainfrog is distributed in the Atlantic premontane slopes and some immediately adjacent lowland sites from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, Mexico, through the base of the Yucatan Peninsula through northern Guatemala and to the Maya Mountains of Belize to western and northern Honduras, near sea level to 1600 m elevation (Frost, 2022). This individual came from near Lake Nahá in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as placing it in the vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and it is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Elí García-Padilla. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 65 �Figure 13. Agalychnis moreletii (Duméril, 1853) The Morelet’s Leaf Frog is distributed in disjunct populations from on both Atlantic and Pacific slopes from Veracruz, adjacent Puebla, and Guerrero through Chiapas, Mexico, to the Maya Mountains of Belize, Guatemala, northwestern Honduras, and El Salvador, 200 to 2130 m elevation (Frost, 2022). This individual came from Nahá in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as 7 placing in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Daniel Ochoa. Figute 14. Agalychnis taylori. (Funkhouser, 1957). The Red Eyes Tree Frog is distributed from west-central Honduras north through Guatemala to Belize and along the Atlantic lowlands of Oaxaca and southern Veracruz, Mexico. This individual came from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Mata-Silva et al.,. (2021) ascertained its EVS as 10 placing it in medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been assessed by the IUCN and it is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris MelgarMartínez. 66 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 15. Dendropsophus microcephalus. (Cope, 1886) The Yellow Treefrog is distributed Open lowlands from southeastern Mexico (southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca), through Central America, to Colombia and thence south through Ecuador, Peru, to northern Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil (Frost, 2022). This individual came from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as 7 placing it in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 16. Lithobates vaillanti. (Brocchi, 1877). The Vaillant’s Frog is a non-endemic species occurring at low and moderate elevations from north-central Veracruz and northern Oaxaca to the central Rio Magdalena region in Colombia, on the Atlantic versant, and on the Pacific versant from southeastern Oaxaca and northwestern Chiapas, Mexico, and from northwestern Nicaragua to southwestern Ecuador, at elevations from near sea level to 1,700 masl (Frost, 2022). This individual is from the vicinity of Puerto Bello Metzabok, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) ascertained its EVS as 9 placing it at the higher portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by IUCN, and this species is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Iris Melgar-Martínez. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 67 �Figure 17. Bolitoglossa rufescens (Cope, 1869). The Common Dwarf Salamander is a non-endemic species found from “extreme eastern San Luis Potosí south through Veracruz, and, provisionally east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Chiapas to Belize and northwestern Honduras” (Frost, 2022). This individual was encountered at the vicinity of Puerto Bello Metzabok, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013a) calculated its EVS as 9, placing it at the upper limit of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status was determined as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN, and as Special Protection (Pr) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris MelgarMartínez. Figure 18. Norops biporcatus (Wiegmann, 1834). The Giant Green Anole occurs on the Atlantic versant from Chiapas, Mexico, exclusive of the Yucatan Peninsula, southward to lower northern South America, and on the Pacific versant from southern Nicaragua to northern Colombia (Armstead et al.,. 2017). This individual was photographed in the locality of Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 10 placing it in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been determined as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and Species of Special Protection (Pr) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. 68 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 19. Norops capito (Peters, 1863). The Anole occurs on the Atlantic slope of Central America (excluding the Yucatan Peninsula), ranging from Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, southward to Panama, and on the Pacific versant in Costa Rica and Panama. Its elevational range extends from near sea level to 1,900 masl (Acosta et al.,. 2020; IUCN, 2022). This individual came from Sendero Nahá in the community of Nahá in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 13 placing it in the upper limit of the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been evaluated as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Elí García-Padilla. Figure 20. Sceloporus serrifer. (Cope, 1866). The range encompasses southern Texas, Mexico, northern Guatemala, and Belize (Conant and Collins 1991; Lee 1996). The range of S. serrifer (sensu lato) is substantially larger than that of S. s. cyanogenys (or S. cyanogenys). The range is Mexico is several disjunct populations representing several subspecies. Mexican range includes north Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, to southern Tamaulipas, Northern Veracruz, and northern Yucatan Peninsula, and central Chiapas. It occurs from 700 to 2,300 masl. (IUCN, 2022). This individual came from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 6 placing it in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 69 �Figure 21. Lepidophyma flavimaculatum (Duméril, 1851). The Yellow-spotted Night Lizard is found at low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from Veracruz eastward through northern Guatemala, Belize, and northern Honduras. In the Yucatan Peninsula it is known from northeastern Chiapas, El Petén, Belize, and southern Quintana Roo (Lee, 1996). This individual was located in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) assessed its EVS as 8, placing it in the upper portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been evaluated as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN, and this species was placed in the Special Protection (Pr) category by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 22. Corythophanes cristatus (Merrem, 1820) The Smooth Helmeted Iguana range extends from the Gulf and Caribbean slopes of Tabasco, northern Chiapas, southern Campeche, and Quintana Roo (Mexico) to Colombia. The species also can be found in the Pacific versant in central and south and marginally northwestern Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia. It is known from elevations below 1,640 masl (Savage, 2002). This individual came from of Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 11 placing it in the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. 70 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 23. Coleonyx elegans. (Gray, 1845). The Yucatan Banded Gecko is a non-endemic species ranging on the Pacific slope from southern Nayarit (Mexico) to western El Salvador, and on the Atlantic slope from Veracruz (Mexico) southward through the Yucatan Peninsula, including northern Guatemala and Belize. Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 1,055 masl (Wilson and Johnson, 2010). This individual was photographed in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) calculated its EVS as 9, placing it at the upper portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been assessed by IUCN, and this species is listed as Endangered (A) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. Figure 24. Boa imperator (Daudin, 1803). The Central American Boa Constrictor is a non-endemic species occurring in Central America (including South American populations in the Choco of Colombia and Ecuador [and probably Peru], and North American populations along the Gulf coast of Mexico (west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; Card et al.,. 2016)). This individual was encountered in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Mata-Silva et al.,. (2021) calculated its EVS as 10, placing it at the lower limit of the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 71 �Figure 25. Drymobius margaritiferus (Schlegel, 1837) The speckled racer occurs at low and moderate elevations (up to 2000 masl) on the Atlantic versant from Texas, and on the Pacific versant from Sonora, southward through Mesoamerica to Colombia (Heimes, 2016). This individual was found in Puerto Bello Metzabok the municipality of Ocosingo. Its EVS has been determined as 6 placing in it in the low vulnerability category Wilson et al.,. (2013b). Its conservation status has been considered as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 26. Leptophis mexicanus. Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril, 1854. The Mexican Parrot Snake is distributed in southeastern Mexico, including Chiapas, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Yucatán, Campeche, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Tamaulipas, Puebla, Hidalgo, Nuevo León, Guerrero, and Yucatán Peninsula, into Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In Guatemala it occurs from near 1,360 masl in elevation (Lee 1996; Campbell ,1998). This individual was found in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Its EVS has been determined as 6 Wilson et al.,. (2013b), placing it in the middle portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been considered as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and it is allocated to the Threatened (A) category by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. 72 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 27. Oxybelis fulgidus (Daudin, 1803). The Green Vinesnake ranges “on the Atlantic and Pacific versant from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec through Central America to Argentina” (Lee, 1996). This individual is from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) assessed its EVS as 9, placing it at the upper limit of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been determined by the IUCN, and this species is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 28. Oxybelis potosiensis. (Taylor, 1941). The Gulf Coast Vine Snake is distributed from San Luis Potosí and northern Veracruz, southward to Yucatán, Mexico, and Belize (Jadin et al.,. 2020). This individual was found in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Its EVS has been determined as 5 (Cruz-Elizalde et al.,. 2022), placing it in the lower portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been evaluated (NE) by the IUCN, and it is considered as having No Status (NS) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 73 �Figure 29. Phrynonax poecilonotus. (Günther, 1858) The Northern birdsnake occurs at low and moderate elevations (up to 1,300 m) along the Atlantic slope from extreme southeastern San Luis Potosí southward to Brazil and Bolivia; the range extends through much of the Yucatán Peninsula, but apparently excludes the drier western portion (Lee 1996); P. poecilonotus also occurs on the Pacific versant in lower Central America and South America (Heimes, 2016). This individual came from in the municipality of the same name. Its EVS has been determined as 5 (Cruz-Elizalde et al.,. 2022), placing it in the lower portion of the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been evaluated (NE) by the IUCN, and it is considered as having No Status (NS) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 30. Xenodon rabdocephalus (Wied, 1824. The False barba amarilla occurs at low and moderate elevations (up to 1,200 m) from central Veracruz and Guerrero southward through Central America to Amazonian South America (Heimes, 2016). This individual came from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Its EVS has been determined as 13 (Cruz-Elizalde et al.,. 2022), placing it in the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN, and it is considered as having No Status (NS) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. 74 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 31. Imantodes cenchoa. (Linnaeus, 1758). The Blunt-headed Treesnake is a non-endemic species occurring at low and intermediate elevations (up to 1,600 masl) on the Atlantic versant, from southern Tamaulipas southward through Central and South America to Argentina. This snake also occurs along the Pacific lowlands and premontane slopes from Chiapas to Guatemala. In the Yucatán Peninsula, it is known from southern Campeche and Quintana Roo, but this species apparently is absent from the arid northwestern region of the peninsula (Heimes, 2016). This individual was found at Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) determined its EVS as 6 placing it in the low vulnerability category. Its conservation status is listed as Least Concern (LC) by IUCN and not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. Figure 32. Metlapilcoatlus mexicanus. (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril, 1854). The Central American Jumping Pitviper occurs at low, moderate, and intermediate elevations on the Atlantic slope “from southern Mexico through Central America south to Costa Rica and Panama, where it is also found on the Pacific versant” (Heimes, 2016). This individual was found in Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Its EVS has been determined as 12 (Wilson et al.,. 2013b), placing it in the upper portion of the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and it is allocated to the Threatened (A) category by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Rafael Tarano-González. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 75 �Figure 33. Bothriechis schlegelii (Berthold, 1846). The Eyelash palm-pitviper ranges at low and moderate elevations from southern Mexico to western Venezuela and northern Peru (Campbell and Lamar, 1989; 2004). In northern Central America, this species occurs only on the Atlantic versant, but from Costa Rica southward it is also found on the Pacific side. In Mexico, it is rare and known only from scattered localities in the northern and eastern highlands of Chiapas (in the areas of El Ocote, Ocozocoautla, El Mercadito near Cintalapa, and Ocosingo), at elevations ranging from about 200 to 1,200 masl (Heimes, 2016). This individual came from Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) determined its EVS as 14, placing it at the lower limit of the high vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN, and as Threatened (A) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Miguel Cruz-Ríos. Figure 34. Bothrops asper (Garman, 1883). The Terciopelo is a non-endemic species ranging from southwestern Tamaulipas to coastal Venezuela on the Atlantic versant, and from Costa Rica to southern Ecuador on the Pacific versant, with a disjunct population in southern Chiapas and adjacent Guatemala (Lemos-Espinal and Dixon, 2013). This individual was found at Puerto Bello Metzabok, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) determined its EVS at 12, placing it in the upper portion of the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has not been assessed by IUCN or SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. 76 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL �THE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE NORTHERN SELVA LACANDONA: NAHÁ AND METZABOK, OCOSINGO, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO; WITH SOME ETHNOHERPETOLOGICAL NOTES Figure 35. Chelydra rossignonii. (Bocourt, 1868). The Mesoamerican Snapping Turtle is a non-endemic species distributed from Veracruz, Mexico, through southern Belize and central Guatemala to northwestern Honduras; it is not known from Yucatán (Iverson, 1992). This individual is from Puerto Bello Metzabok, in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 17, placing it in the middle portion of the high vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Vulnerable by IUCN, and this species is not listed by SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. Figure 36. Staurotypus triporcatus. (Wiegmann, 1828). The Mexican Giant Musk Turtle is a non-endemic species distributed from Veracruz through the base of the Yucatan Peninsula to western Honduras (Köhler, 2008). This individual was found at Puerto Bello Metzabok in the municipality of Ocosingo. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) determined its EVS as 14, placing it at the lower limit of the high vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN, and as Threatened (A) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Rafael Tarano-González. Vol. 6 No. 12, segundo semestre 2023 77 �Figure 37. Crocodylus moreletii. (Duméril & Bribon, 1851) The Morelet´s crocodile s distributed from northeastern Mexico’s central Tamaulipas area, through the Yucatan Peninsula to northern Guatemala and central Belize. From 2002 to 2004, Mexico developed the “COPAN” project to assess the presence of the species across its historical range and in outlying areas; 63 localities were surveyed in 10 States (Sigler and Dominguez, 2008). In Mexico, C. moreletii occupies an estimated area of 396,455 km² (estimated by GARP algorithm and based on historical and actual localities). Total historical distribution across all three range states has been estimated as 450,000 km², of which 88% lies in Mexico (CONABIO, 2006). This individual came from of Puerto Bello Metzabok. Wilson et al.,. (2013b) ascertained its EVS as 13 placing it in the medium vulnerability category. Its conservation status has been assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN and Special protection (Pr) by SEMARNAT. Photo by Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez. 78 Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas | UANL ��IN MEMORIAM: María Nuria Méndez Ubach �L a Dra. Nuria Méndez Ubach, distinguida académica e investigadora del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología de la UNAM, falleció el día 09 de diciembre de 2022, a la edad de 64 años. Proveniente de una familia de refugiados de la guerra española, la Dra. Méndez Ubach, nació en la Ciudad de México el 14 de octubre de 1958, sus padres María Ubach y Francisco Méndez. Nuria realizó sus estudios básicos en el Instituto Luis Vives, cursó la carrera de Biología en la Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM (1977-1981), y defendió su tesis en 1983. Obtuvo la distinción de la Medalla “Gabino Barreda”, por sus estudios de Maestría en Ciencias (1982-1986). Posteriormente, obtuvo el grado de Doctora en Biología (1990-1994) en el Departamento de Ecología de la Facultad de Biología en la Universidad de Barcelona (España) con calificación de Apto Cum laude. Realizó una estancia postdoctoral (1998-1999) en el Institute of Aquaculture de la Universidad de Stirling (Escocia) y en el Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry de la Universidad de Roskilde (Dinamarca). Sus líneas de especialidad fueron la ecología marina (especialmente aspectos relacionados con contaminación), la ecotoxicología y aspectos reproductivos de poliquetos. Se incorporó al Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología de la UNAM en México D.F. como Técnica Académica (1983-1989) y, posteriormente, como Investigadora Asociada (1996-2005), y Titular (desde el 2005) en la Unidad Académica Mazatlán del mismo instituto. Sus principales logros fueron: artículos científicos (52), participación con trabajos científicos en congresos nacionales (35) e internacionales (55), capítulos de libros (6), artículos de divulgación (5), dirección de tesis de posgrado (4), participación en comités revisores de revistas científicas nacionales (12 trabajos) e internacionales (58 trabajos), evaluación de proyectos de investigación (11), como responsable de proyectos de investigación (4), y como colaboradora (32), participó en campañas oceanográficas (26). En el 2016 recibió la medalla “Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz” como reconocimiento a su destacada labor como académica de la UNAM. Sus trabajos de mayor trascendencia sobre la caracterización de los ciclos de vida de especies del género Capitella, cuentan con más de 80 citas. Formó parte del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores nivel I (1997-2007 y 2017- a la fecha) y nivel II (2008-2016). Además del legado académico de la Dra. Nuria Méndez, quienes tuvimos la fortuna de interactuar con Nuri, recordaran con cariño su afición por los viajes, sus largas y animadas charlas (condimentadas con expresiones españolas), su personalidad directa y franca, así como su sonrisa fácil, entre otras mil características que la distinguieron. �Dra.    Beatriz Yañez Rivera y Dra. María Elena García Garza �Sobre AUTORES LOS Adrián González-Martínez. Estudiante de la carrera de Biólogo en la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas de la UANL desde 2018. Parte del cuerpo del Laboratorio de Paleobiología durante el semestre Agosto-Diciembre de 2022. Su área de interés es el estudio de la botánica de criptógamas, con enfoque en Lycopodopsida (en particular, del género Selaginella en el noreste de México) y Polypodiopsida. Experiencia en manejo de SIG y producción de cartografía digital. Fue auxiliar de la UA Paleobiología, y está involucrado en proyectos de Paleoclimatología, Vegetación y Planeación Urbana. Creador del proyecto “Flora de Nuevo León” en Instagram y Facebook con el cual se divulga información sobre especies de plantas nativas al estado de Nuevo León. ORCID: 0000-0003-2988-1879 adrian.gonzalezmtz99@gmail.com Ana Iris Melgar-Martínez, Santuario del Cocodrilo “Tres Lagunas”, is a biologist graduated from the Chiapas University of Sciences and Arts. It has been dedicated to the study of the traditional knowledge of the Lacandon Mayan peoples of the north and south, currently it belongs to the Hach Winik. He has dedicated himself to training for the management of herpetofauna and ophidian accident and thanks to this he can carry out rescue work, workshops and environmental education to interested young people within the Lacandón area. Among his interests are nature photography and video with said material, he generates photos, infographics and videos to share them on digital platforms and speed up the dissemination of the importance of wild species. Armando Leopoldo Leonel Cruz Biomatvi Laboratorio, Zapotlán de Juárez, Hidalgo, México. lab.biomatvi@gmail.com Carmen Julia Figueredo-Urbina Investigadora por México CONACYT, Instituto de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo. figueredocj@gmail.com David Lazcano, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, is a herpetologist who earned a bachelor’s degree in chemical science in 1980, and a bachelor’s degree in biology in 1982. In 1999 he earned a master’s degree in wildlife management and later a PhD degree in biological sciences with a specialty in wildlife management (2005), all gained from the Facultad de Ciencias Biólogicas of the Universidad Autonóma de Nuevo León (FCB/UANL), Mexico. Currently, has retired from this institution after 42 years of teaching courses in soil sciences, general ecology, herpetology, herpetological ecology, animal behavior, biogeography, biology in English, diversity and biology of chordates, and wildlife management. He had been the head of the Laboratorio de Herpetología from 1993-2022, teaching and providing assistance in both undergraduate and graduate programs. In 2006 he was honored to receive the Joseph Lazlo award for his herpetological trajectory, from the IHS. In October 2017 he was awarded national recognition by the Asociación para la Investigación y Conservación de Anfibios y Reptiles (AICAR), due to his contribution to the study of ecology and conservation of herpetofauna in northeastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila). He participated in the development of the Program of Action for the Conservation of the Species (PACE) Rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.). His research interests include the study of the herpetofaunal diversity of northeastern Mexico, as well as the ecology, herpetology, biology of the chordates, biogeography, animal behavior, and population maintenance techniques of montane herps. He had been thesis advisor for many Bachelor’s, Master’s, and PhD degrees dealing with the study of the herpetofauna of the region as well as nationally. David has published more 270 scientific notes and articles in indexed and general diffusion journals, concerning the herpetofauna of the northeastern portion of Mexico. His students named a species in honor of his work, Gerrhonotus lazcanoi. Is still an active herpetologist. Eduardo Alexis López-Esquivel, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Eduardo Alexis López-Esquivel is a Mexican biogeographer, who received a B.Sc. in Biology in the Facultad de Ciencias from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). Nowadays, he is a M.Sc. student in the Biological Sciences program of his “alma mater.” His main interest is the study of long-term vegetation dynamics at Middle America, which he approaches using paleoecological and macroecological methods. Elí García-Padilla, Biodiversidad Mesoamericana, is a Social Biologist and Professional Photographer with more than 12 years of experience in the formal study and photo documentation of the biological and cultural diversity of Mexico. He has published �1 book entitled “Mexican biodiversity: the snake, the jaguar and the quetzal” and more than 100 formal contributions on knowledge, communication of science and conservation of Mesoamerican biodiversity. Since 2006, it has invested effort in the exploration of Oaxaca and Chiapas, which are the most biodiverse and multicultural entities in Mexico. In 2017 he began to enter the mythical region of Los Chimalapas, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, which is the most biologically rich in all of Mexico under a community social conservation scheme. He has published his photographic work in prestigious magazines such as National Geographic in Spanish and Cuartoscuro. From 2020 to date, he co-founded the “Mesoamerican Biodiversity” initiative with the aim of creating a community around the dissemination of the most important wealth of Mexico, which is its biodiversity and its culture. His texts are published regularly in Oaxaca Media, the Jornada Ecológica and the Ojarasca Supplement of La Jornada. Felipe Ruan-Soto, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, is a biologist graduated from Facultad de Ciencias at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He got his Master’s degree on Natural Resources and Rural Development at El Colegio de la Frontera Sur and went on to obtain a PhD in the Biological Science Graduate Program at UNAM. He completed two years as a postdoctoral fellow at CIMSUR-UNAM. He is a professor and collaborator at the Biocultural processes, education and sustainability laboratory at Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas in Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas. He has presided over the Asociación Etnobiológica Mexicana (Mexican Ethnobiology Association AEM) and been vice-president to the Sociedad Latinoamericana de Etnobiología (Latin American Ethnobiology Society, SOLAE). His area of focus is socioenvironmental systems and biocultural diversity from an ethnobiology perspective. Flora Eduarda Cruz López, Químico Farmacéutico Biólogo, Maestra en en Inmunología Médica por parte y Doctora en Microbiología en 2020 por la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, con la mención Magna Cum Laude. Investigadora y docente de licenciatura en la carrera de Químico Farmacéutico Biólogo, de la Facultad de Ciencias Químicas de la UANL desde 2016. Además, es parte del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores Nivel 1 por el CONACYT. Es parte del Posgrado con Orientación en Farmacia de la Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Cuenta con 10 publicaciones relacionadas a infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud y el proceso de colonización de pacientes hospitalizados Iván Villalobos-Juárez, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes. obtained his undergraduate degree in Biology at the Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes (UAA), but, in the past, he studied Marketing in the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Aguascalientes. Ivan is an Associate Professor of Biology at UAA and a professor in Universidad Autónoma de Durango. He is also a Research Technical Assistant at the Zoological Collection in UAA. Ivan was the last Program Manager of Viper Specialist Group of the International Union for a Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and was a curator of the taxonomic platform Reptile Database. He has worked on the natural history of the Isla Coronado Rattlesnake (Crotalus helleri caliginis), habitat use of rattlesnakes in Central Mexico, trade of Mexican rattlesnakes, and the popular knowledge of reptiles. His primary interests include natural history, diversity, and conservation of amphibians and reptiles in Mexico. Jerry D. Johnson, University of Texas at El Paso, is Professor of Biological Sciences at The University of Texas at El Paso, and has extensive experience studying the herpetofauna of Mesoamerica, especially that of southern Mexico. Jerry is the Director of the 40,000-acre Indio Mountains Research Station, was a co-editor of the book Conservation of Mesoamerican Amphibians and Reptiles and co-author of four of its chapters. He is the senior author of the recent paper “A conservation reassessment of the Central American herpetofauna based on the EVS measure” and is the Mesoamerica/Caribbean editor for the Geographic Distribution section of Herpetological Review. Jerry has authored orco-authored over 100 peer-reviewed papers, including two key articles in 2010, “Geographic distribution and conservation of the herpetofauna of southeastern Mexico” and “Distributional patterns of the herpetofauna of Mesoamerica, a biodiversity hotspot.” One species, Tantilla johnsoni, has been named in his honor. Previously, he was an Associate Editor and Co-chair of the Taxonomic Board for the journal Mesoamerican Herpetology. Julio Adrián Martínez Meléndez, Químico Farmacéutico Biólogo, Maestro y Doctor en Ciencias con Orientación en Microbiología, con la mención Magna Cum Laude. Grados otorgados por Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Profesor e investigador en la la Facultad de Ciencias Químicas de la UANL, en la carrera de Químico Farmacéutico Biólogo. Imparte los cursos de Bacteriología y Micología Médica, Microbiología Médica Diagnóstica, y Parasitología. Investigador Nacional Nivel 1 por parte del CONACyT desde 2020. Forma parte del Posgrado en Farmacia de la misma Facultad, y cuenta con 19 publicaciones en revistas indexadas y arbitradas, enfocadas al estudio de factores de virulencia, epidemiología molecular y farmacorresistencia. Laiju Kuzhuppillymyal-Prabhakarankutty, Cuenta con un grado académico en Ciencias Botánicas (India), Maestrías en Microbiología (UANL), y en Bioquímica (India); además, Doctorado en Microbiología (UANL). Actualmente realiza un posdoctorado en el Instituto de Ciencias Agrícolas (ICA), en el Laboratorio de Entomología, en donde imparte cursos del área de Microbiología general a estudiantes de Agronomía. La Dra. Kuzhuppillymyal ha desarrollado investigaciones referentes al uso de hongos endófitos para el manejo de estrés abiótico y biótico; enfocándose principalmente en el control �de la plaga gusano cogollero (Spodoptera frugiperda) y estrés por sequía en el cultivo de maíz (Zea mays). Es actualmente miembro del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores, Nivel Candidato. Larry David Wilson, Escuela Agrícola Panamericana Zamorano, is a herpetologist with extensive experience in Mesoamerica. He was born in Taylorville, Illinois, USA, and received his university education at the University of Illinois at ChampaignUrbana (B.S. degree) and at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge (M.S. and Ph.D. degrees). He has authored or co-authored more than 460 peerreviewed papers and books on herpetology. Larry is the senior editor of Conservation of Mesoamerican Amphibians and Reptiles and the co-author of seven of its chapters. His other books include The Snakes of Honduras, Middle American Herpetology, The Amphibians of Honduras, Amphibians &Reptiles of the Bay Islands and Cayos Cochinos, Honduras, The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Honduran Mosquitia, and Guide to the Amphibians & Reptiles of Cusuco National Park, Honduras. To date, he has authored or co-authored the descriptions of 75 currentlyrecognized herpetofaunal species, and seven species have been named in his honor, including the anuran Craugastor lauraster, the lizard Norops wilsoni, and the snakes Oxybelis wilsoni, Myriopholis wilsoni, and Cerrophidion wilsoni. In 2005, he was designated a Distinguished Scholar in the Field of Herpetology at the Kendall Campus of Miami-Dade College. Currently, Larry is a Co-chair of the Taxonomic Board for the website Mesoamerican Herpetology. Lydia Allison Fucsko, Swinburne University of Technology, is an amphibian conservationist and environmental activist. She is also a gifted photographer who has taken countless pictures of amphibians, including photo galleries of mostly southeastern Australian frogs. Dra. Fucsko has postgraduate degrees in computer education and in vocational education and training from The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia. Lydia also holds a Master’s Degree in Counseling from Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Australia. She received her Ph.D. in Environmental Education, which promoted habitat conservation, species perpetuation, and global sustainable management from Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Australia. In addition, Dra. Fucsko is a sought-after educational consultant. Recently, the species Tantilla lydia was named in her honor. Mario C. Lavariega, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, is an Associate Professor at the Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigation para el Desarrollo Integral Regional Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His research is focused on community-based conservation. Pedro Adrián Ibarra-Elizondo, Estudiante de la carrera de Biólogo en la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas de la UANL desde 2018. Parte del cuerpo del Laboratorio de Paleobiología durante el semestre Agosto-Diciembre de 2022. Experiencia en el manejo profesional de SIG y producción de cartografía digital en ambientes Python, R y JavaScript, análisis de información estadística con enfoque en ciencias de la vida como elaboración e interpretación de índices ecológicos, abundancias y densidades poblacionales, tablas de vida, traslape y modelado de nichos, producción y entrenamiento de algoritmos computacionales tipo Machine Learning para predicción y/o clasificación, y creación, consulta y conexión de Bases de Datos con interacción en los ambientes HTML, PHP, MySQL y PostgreSQL. Interés en futuros proyectos de conservación, desarrollo urbano sostenible, geomática ambiental, paleobiología, paleoclimatología y educación ambiental. ORCID: 0000-0002-0741-2687 adrian230801@hotmail.com Roberto Bucio Peña, Chef independiente de cocina mexicana tradicional, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, México. chef_buccio@hotmail.com Sergio I. Salazar-Vallejo. Investigador Titular C de ECOSUR. Biólogo (1981), Maestro en Ciencias en Ecología Marina (1985), Doctor en Biología (1998). Miembro del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores desde 1985 (Investigador Nacional desde 1988, SNI 3901, nivel actual III). Noventa y seis artículos en revistas JCR y 3 en revistas non-JCR, 27 capítulos de libro. Tres libros publicados (1989. Poliquetos de México; 1991. Contaminación Marina; 2005. Poliquetos pelágicos del Caribe) y tres co-editados (1991. Estudios Ecológicos Preliminares de la Zona Sur de Quintana Roo; 1993. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México, 2009. Poliquetos de América Tropical); 47 publicaciones de divulgación. Veinticuatro tesis dirigidas: 8 de doctorado (todos SNI), 8 de maestría y 8 de licenciatura. Profesor de Licenciatura en ocho instituciones (Cursos: Zoología de Invertebrados, Ecología Marina, Biogeografía, Comunicación Científica, Taxonomía de Poliquetos), Profesor de Posgrado en seis instituciones (Cursos: Ecología del Bentos, Comunicación Científica, Ecología Costera, Sistemática Avanzada) y del Diplomado Reserva. Veintiocho ponencias en congresos nacionales y 33 ponencias en congresos internacionales. Treinta y seis distinciones académicas. Arbitro de 31 revistas o series y miembro del comité editorial de cuatro de ellas. Veintinueve estancias de investigación en Museos e Instituciones de Estados Unidos, Europa y Sudamérica. Areas de investigación: biodiversidad costera, taxonomía de invertebrados marinos, política ambiental y científica (evaluación académica). ��� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Biología y Sociedad Description An account of the resource La revista Biología y Sociedad, nace en el 2018 que se mantiene activa y es una publicación de divulgación científica en formato electrónico de la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. La filosofía de la revista es que los ciudadanos provistos de la mejor información posible tendrán la capacidad de tomar decisiones óptimas, con bases científicas, sobre diversas problemáticas. En consecuencia, los artículos publicados deberán estar escritos con claridad para un público amplio no especializado, por lo que se espera que los documentos remitidos para publicación estén acordes a la filosofía de esta publicación. Su frecuencia es semestral; dirigida a transmitir conocimientos con la intención de lograr que permee dentro de la propia comunidad universitaria y fuera de ella. Publica trabajos de autores nacionales y extranjeros en español o inglés, basados sobre cualquier tema relacionado con las ciencias biológicas. La publicación de la revista cuenta con la participación de especialistas nacionales e internacionales como miembros del Comité Editorial. Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Título Uniforme Biología y Sociedad Año de publicación El año cuando se publico 2023 Número Número de la revista 12 Mes de publicación Mes cuando se publicó Julio-Diciembre Día Día del mes de la publicación 1 Periodicidad La periodicidad de la publicación (diaria, semanal, mensual, anual) Semestral Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Biología y Sociedad, 2023, Vol 6, No 12, Segundo Semestre Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Guzmán Velazco, Antonio, Director Subject The topic of the resource Ecología y sustentabilidad Biología contemporánea Investigación Divulgación científica Ciencias de la salud Alimentos Description An account of the resource La revista Biología y Sociedad, nace en el 2018 que se mantiene activa y es una publicación de divulgación científica en formato electrónico de la Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. La filosofía de la revista es que los ciudadanos provistos de la mejor información posible tendrán la capacidad de tomar decisiones óptimas, con bases científicas, sobre diversas problemáticas. En consecuencia, los artículos publicados deberán estar escritos con claridad para un público amplio no especializado, por lo que se espera que los documentos remitidos para publicación estén acordes a la filosofía de esta publicación. Su frecuencia es semestral; dirigida a transmitir conocimientos con la intención de lograr que permee dentro de la propia comunidad universitaria y fuera de ella. Publica trabajos de autores nacionales y extranjeros en español o inglés, basados sobre cualquier tema relacionado con las ciencias biológicas. La publicación de la revista cuenta con la participación de especialistas nacionales e internacionales como miembros del Comité Editorial. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource León González, Jesús Ángel, de, Editor Responsable García Garza, María Elena, Editor Técnico Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 01/07/2023 Type The nature or genre of the resource Revista Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource text/pdf Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2021103 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Fondo Universitario Language A language of the resource spa/eng Relation A related resource http://www.fcb.uanl.mx/bys/# Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant San Nicolás de los Garza, N.L., México Access Rights Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status. Access Rights may include information regarding access or restrictions based on privacy, security, or other policies. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. El diseño y los contenidos de La hemeroteca Digital UANL están protegidos por la Ley de derechos de autor, Cap. III. De dominio público. Art. 152. Las obras del dominio público pueden ser libremente utilizadas por cualquier persona, con la sola restricción de respetar los derechos morales de los respectivos autores Biodiversidad marina Chinicuiles Gusanos rojos del maguey Reforestación urbana nativa Reptiles Selva Lacandona